This report examines the opportunities and challenges for resource-rich developing countries to develop downstream processing and manufacturing in the mining value chain. Focusing on a selection of critical minerals vital for the energy transition, it examines two central questions:

• What specific fiscal and non-fiscal conditions enable countries to optimize the balance between revenues from producing the mineral and benefits from processing and refining the mineral further down the value chain in-country?
• What tax and other related measures have countries adopted to increase in-country value across the mining value chain? 

The analysis considers factors that have helped or hindered previous attempts to increase domestic value lock-in in resource-rich countries and emphasizes practical approaches to designing fiscal policies that support sustainable value addition.

Mozambique ranks among the world's most climate-vulnerable countries. Cyclones, floods, and saltwater intrusion regularly devastate coastal communities, damaging homes, farmland, and infrastructure. The loss of mangroves and wetlands has further eroded natural protection, leaving millions of people exposed to climate and environmental risks. 

To address these challenges, the Government of Mozambique, supported by the United Nations Environment Programme, is developing a proposal to the Green Climate Fund that promotes ecosystem-based adaptation in three estuaries: Bons Sinais, Zambezi, and Limpopo. The plan combines the restoration of 7,500 hectares of wetlands, restoration of 3,800 hectares of mangroves, and conservation of 30,000 hectares of coastal ecosystems. These measures would directly benefit around 211,000 people and indirectly support more than 1 million people by improving water quality, sustaining fisheries, and reducing disaster risks. 

The NBI Global Resource Centre conducted a SAVi assessment to test the economic, environmental, and social performance of these measures compared to a business-as-usual scenario. The assessment considered several climate and carbon price scenarios to estimate how ecosystem restoration could lower flood and pollution costs, enhance fisheries, and capture carbon. 

The results show that restoring and conserving mangroves and wetlands is a high-return investment. For an estimated investment of USD 41.7 million, the interventions could generate up to USD 537.5 million in benefits—around USD 14 in value for every dollar spent. The Limpopo estuary delivers the highest returns because of its larger exposed population, while Bons Sinais and Zambezi also provide strong resilience and ecosystem gains. 

Beyond the economic results, the interventions would help re-establish vital habitats for fish and wildlife, prevent soil and water degradation, and improve the capacity of communities to recover after storms. These findings demonstrate that NBI is one of Mozambique's most cost-effective strategies for safeguarding people, strengthening biodiversity, and advancing national climate goals.

Africa's mineral wealth can power industrial growth, yet much potential remains untapped as extraction dominates and value addition is limited. These publications—jointly developed by the Intergovernmental Forum on Mining, Minerals, Metals and Sustainable Development and the African Development Bank—present insights on nickel, copper, cobalt, lithium, bauxite, phosphate, platinum group elements, iron ore, rare earth elements, manganese, graphite, and vanadium. 

Each factsheet profiles properties, global recycling, demand outlooks, and Africa's share of mining, refining, and exploration. They also map supply chains and trade, assess market risks and leverage points, and flag social and environmental challenges. The analysis situates these minerals within equitable resource-based industrialization aligned with the Africa Mining Vision, noting constraints from underinvestment in geoscience and structural factors across energy, skills, technology, infrastructure, and finance. 

Three trends are currently reshaping options for resource-rich countries: (a) security of supply for minerals essential for low-emissions energy systems, (b) clean energy cost parity, and (c) a shift toward more equitable resource partnerships.

Although international aviation contributes approximately 2.4% of global annual carbon dioxide emissions, fuel used in this sector is rarely taxed. A tax on aviation fuel could support the sector’s climate targets by promoting greater fuel efficiency, encouraging the uptake of sustainable aviation fuels, and ensuring fairer competition with less emission-intensive transport modes. 

The 1944 Convention on International Civil Aviation (Chicago Convention), applicable to all International Civil Aviation Organization member states, does not prohibit the introduction of aviation fuel taxes. However, legal barriers may arise from bilateral and multilateral ASAs. 

This report examines 32 ASAs concluded between COFFIS member states to determine the necessary steps before implementing a tax on the uptake of aviation fuel. None of the reviewed ASAs restricts the taxation of fuel for domestic aviation. The ASAs are categorized into four groups based on their treatment of fuel taxation. Only two categories require reform prior to implementing a tax for international flights: (i) agreements containing a full tax prohibition and (ii) those imposing non-discrimination or similar clauses. 

For European Union (EU) member states, legal barriers primarily stem from the EU Energy Taxation Directive (ETD). However, if the EU enters an international agreement that introduces different fuel tax rules, such an agreement would prevail over the ETD, opening the door for aviation fuel taxation across all EU member states. 

The most effective way to overcome these legal barriers, for EU and non-EU states, is through a Joint Agreement among a coalition of the willing. States have used similar approaches to successfully amend large numbers of bilateral treaties in other areas, such as investment and tax law. 

This report also quantifies emissions associated with three ASAs concluded by the United Kingdom and estimates the tax revenue potential if a fuel tax were implemented for these routes.

This publication explores the global resurgence of industrial policy with a focus on green industrial policy that aims to combine economic competitiveness with environmental sustainability. It defines green industrial policy as government intervention to restructure economies toward low-carbon and resource-efficient systems while maintaining prosperity and jobs. The publication reviews the historical evolution of industrial policy, from early import-substitution/export-promotion strategies to the Washington Consensus and its rejection of state intervention, before charting the return of industrial policies driven by climate imperatives, geopolitical rivalry, and supply chain disruptions. 

Through case studies of China, the United States, the European Union, Canada, Brazil, and South Korea, the report highlights diverse national approaches, their successes and setbacks, and the tensions they create in global trade. The analysis emphasizes both the economic opportunities and risks of unequal benefits and adverse impacts on trading partners, as well as the environmental and competitiveness gains. The report concludes with key questions for national and international policy-makers, stressing the need for transparent, equitable, and cooperative frameworks to maximize global welfare while ensuring fair opportunities for developing countries.

Kisumu County, on the shores of Lake Victoria, faces growing climate and environmental pressures. Floods, droughts, soil erosion, declining fisheries, and inadequate sanitation are undermining agriculture, food security, and public health. Runoff and invasive species further degrade the lake's ecosystem, deepening inequalities and weakening resilience. 

To address these challenges, Trust 2 Impact is piloting the NBI transformation program in the Nyando catchment. The program combines agroforestry and reforestation; riparian restoration; water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) management; and fish hatcheries to restore ecosystem health, improve water quality, reduce deforestation, and provide new livelihood opportunities. 

The NBI Global Resource Centre conducted a SAVi assessment of the program, in collaboration with Trust 2 Impact, to assess the initiative's performance compared to a business-as-usual baseline. Four NBI scenarios were evaluated: one combines all interventions, and three focus individually on agroforestry, WASH, and fisheries. 

The results confirmed that NBI is both cost-effective and transformative. Over 26 years, the integrated scenario could generate nearly USD 940 million in net benefits, equivalent to about USD 3 in value for every dollar invested. Sanitation measures could avoid nearly USD 480 million in health costs, fisheries interventions could deliver the highest return per dollar invested, and agroforestry and reforestation could generate steady revenues from crops, fruits, and carbon storage. Carbon valuation could add USD 62.85 million, surpassing capital expenditures and highlighting the potential of carbon credits as a financing tool. 

By linking ecological restoration with health, food security, and investment opportunities, the NBI transformation program offers a scalable model for climate resilience in Kenya and across East Africa.

Mobilizing finance for climate action—including private sector investment—is essential to achieving the goals of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Paris Agreement. This report explores eight innovative financial instruments with strong potential to attract private finance for adaptation and mitigation in developing countries and LDCs. It assesses each instrument's strengths, limitations, and enabling conditions, with a focus on how public finance can be used to scale their application. The instruments include the following:

• Adaptation Benefit Mechanism
• biodiversity credits
• carbon taxes
• carbon trading mechanisms
• credit guarantees
• debt-for-nature/climate resilience swaps
• pooled investment funds
• sovereign green and sustainability-linked bonds

Each offers a distinct pathway to leverage private sector engagement in climate-resilient development.

At the United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP 26) in Glasgow, 39 countries and public finance institutions signed the CETP, committing to end international public finance for fossil fuels by the end of 2022 and to fully prioritize finance for clean energy. With Norway and Australia joining at COP 28 and the United States leaving the commitment in February 2025, the partnership now consists of 40 members. 

This report analyzes CETP signatories' international finance for fossil fuels and clean energy in 2024—2 years since the implementation deadline. The report finds the following:

• Most signatories continued to cut fossil fuel finance in 2024. In line with trends from 2023, members reduced international support for fossil fuels by up to 78% in 2024, to USD 4.7 billion. This progress demonstrates the tremendous power and positive impact of the CETP as a vehicle of the clean energy transition.
• Only 10 out of 17 high-income signatories have fully aligned their energy finance policies with the CETP pledge. To fully implement the CETP, signatories should close loopholes that allow continued fossil fuel financing.
• Progress on scaling up clean energy finance remains slow. CETP finance for renewable energy increased by only USD 3.2 billion in 2024 compared with 2019–2021, meaning less than one-fifth of the funds shifted from fossil fuels were redirected to clean energy.
• Despite the momentum in winding down fossil fuel finance, the initiative is facing significant headwinds. Rising geopolitical tensions and the United States' exit in 2024 make CETP gains more fragile. 

To safeguard current progress, signatories should adopt a collective target of at least USD 42 billion for scaling clean energy finance in emerging markets and developing economies under the CETP Clean Energy Action Plan and adopt institutional or whole-of-government policies and strategies to ensure this finance is fair, advances a just transition, and prioritizes transformative subsectors, such as grids and storage.

MEL systems are a critical component of both the NAP process and the NAP document. They are designed to assess whether adaptation strategies are achieving their intended outcomes, understand how and for whom they are effective and inform necessary adjustments based on evidence. 

Not only is MEL a dedicated phase of NAP processes, but these systems also support accountability and institutional learning across the four phases of the iterative adaptation cycle: impact, vulnerability, and risk assessments, planning, implementation, and MEL. It also contributes to strengthening the overall effectiveness of climate resilience efforts while helping to minimize the risk of unintended consequences. Moreover, MEL systems for NAP processes also generate essential information for international climate reporting under the Paris Agreement. 

This first synthesis report by the NAP Global Network reviews how 62 countries have integrated MEL into their NAP documents, based on the information provided in their NAP submissions to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change as of June 30, 2025. It provides a snapshot of how countries describe the status and design of their MEL systems across the four phases of the iterative adaptation cycle. The report also identifies common trends, gaps, and emerging good practices, with case studies illustrating promising approaches to strengthening MEL design and implementation.

This is the fifth edition of The Production Gap report, which was first issued in 2019. It tracks the misalignment between governments' planned fossil fuel production and global production levels consistent with limiting global warming to 1.5°C or 2°C. The report, which is externally peer reviewed, represents a collaboration of several research and academic institutions, including inputs and reviews from more than 50 experts spanning all parts of the globe. This year's publication updates the analysis presented in the 2023 edition, profiling the plans and projections of 20 major fossil fuel-producing countries, representing a mix of the world's largest producers, large producers with readily available data, and producers with strongly stated climate ambitions.