Canada and Agenda
21Canada and Agenda
21
CHAPTER 18
Protection of the Quality and Supply of Freshwater Resources: Application of Integrated Approaches to the Development, Management and Use of Water Resources
-- Sandra Scott --
Sandra Scott is the Coordinator for UNCED Follow-Up at the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME). The views expressed in this chapter are those of the author, with input from other stakeholders, and do not necessarily represent the views of the CCME or the Projet de Société.
THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM
Recognizing that water is needed in all aspects of life, the general objective of this chapter is to make sure that adequate supplies of good quality water are maintained for the entire population of the planet while preserving the hydrological, biological and chemical functions of ecosystems.
The chapter recognizes the need for integrated water resources planning and management, given the widespread scarcity, gradual destruction and pollution of freshwater resources in many regions. Such integration must consider the different types of interrelated freshwater bodies including both surface and ground water and both quality and quantity issues. The approach to planning and management must accommodate the multi-interest utilization of water resources for water supply, sanitation, agriculture, industry, urban development, hydropower, fisheries, transportation, recreation etc.
The problem of transboundary water resources is recognized in the chapter, and co-operation among those States affected by such transboundary interests is recommended. The protection of groundwater is also recognized as an essential element of water resource management.
Many, though not all, of the problems addressed in this chapter are relevant in the Canadian context. While sections on drinking water supplies and sewage treatment may have been more relevant for developing countries, many of the issues, and particularly the emphasis on integrated management, are important in Canada.
Canada does have an abundance of freshwater, yet 60% of it drains north toward the Arctic Ocean, and 90% of our population lives within 300 km of the Canada-U.S. border. This question of distribution, along with the fact that we are the world's second largest per capita consumers of water could result in serious supply questions in the future. It is also important to know that Canada currently diverts more water between basins (principally for hydro-generation purposes) than any other nation in the world.
In addition, many of Canada's freshwater systems (the Great Lakes, the St. Lawrence River, the Fraser River etc.) are under considerable stress from human activities. Growth of cities, industrial activity, and the increased use of chemicals in agriculture are all affecting the quality of water in Canadian lakes and rivers. Some water bodies are polluted by agricultural run-off and inadequately treated sewage, while others are exposed to toxic chemicals from industrial emissions.
The loss of wetlands has also been an issue of considerable concern in Canada. Over the years wetlands have been drained to increase agricultural acreage, or to accommodate urban growth. Eighty percent of the Fraser River delta wetlands, 68% of southern Ontario wetlands, up to 71% of prairie wetlands and 65% of Atlantic coastal marshes have been lost.
Freshwater lakes and rivers have always been an important part of the Canadian landscape and of Canadian economic and social history. As guardian of 9% of the world's renewable supply of fresh water, Canada has a responsibility to ensure that it manages this resource properly.
PROGRAM AREAS AND OBJECTIVES
The chapter identifies seven major program areas, each with a number of objectives. These are briefly outlined below.
(1) Integrated water resources management.
promote a multisectoral approach to water resources management that integrates technological, socio-economic, environmental and human health considerations;
plan for the sustainable use of water resources based on community needs and priorities;
design and evaluate projects and programs within clearly defined strategies, based on an approach of full public participation in water management decision-making;
harmonize, where appropriate water management strategies of States sharing transboundary resources.
design and initiate costed and targeted national action programs by the year 2000.
(2) Assessment of water resources.
make available to all countries appropriate water resources assessment technology including methods for the impact assessment of climate change on freshwater;
have all countries allocate the necessary financial resources to water resources assessment;
ensure that the assessment information is fully utilized in developing policies;
establish the institutional arrangements needed to ensure the efficient collection, processing, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information about water resources.
(3) Protection of water resources, water quality and aquatic systems.
maintain ecosystem integrity;
protect public health;
develop human resources;
identify surface and groundwater resources that could be used on a sustainable basis and develop programs for their sustainable use;
identify all potential sources of water-supply and plan for their protection, conservation and rational use;
initiate effective water pollution prevention and control programs, including reduction-at-source strategies, environmental impact assessments and enforceable standards for major point-source discharges;
participate in international water-quality monitoring and management programs;
reduce water-associated diseases, starting with guinea worm disease and river blindness, by the year 2000;
establish biological, health, physical and chemical quality criteria for all water bodies.
(4) Drinking-water supply and sanitation.
promote integrated management of water resources and liquid and solid wastes;
promote an integrated approach and the full participation of women at all levels in sector institutions;
support community management of services.
(5) Water and sustainable urban development.
By the year 2000:
ensure that all urban residents have access to at least 40 litres per capita per day of safe water and that 75 percent of the urban population is provided with on-site or community facilities for sanitation;
establish and apply quantitative and qualitative discharge standards for municipal and industrial effluents;
ensure that 75 percent of solid waste generated in urban areas is collected and recycled or disposed of in an environmentally safe way.
(6) Water for sustainable food production and rural development.
water should be regarded as a finite resource having an economic value with significant social and economic implications;
local communities must participate in all phases of water management;
water resource management must be developed within a comprehensive set of policies for (i) human health; (ii) food production, preservation and distribution; (iii) disaster mitigation plans; (iv) environmental protection and conservation of the natural resource base;
recognize and actively support the role of rural populations (especially women);
(7) Impacts of climate change on water resources.
understand and quantify the threat of the impact of climate change on freshwater resources;
facilitate the implementation of effective national countermeasures, when the threat appears to justify such action;
study the potential impacts of climate change on areas prone to droughts and floods.
CANADIAN POSITIONS AT RIO
1. Official Canadian Position
The Canadian position included the following four objectives:
(1)to support the water management approaches and directions defined at the Dublin Water Conference;
(2)to avoid the creation of new institutions and financial commitment to proposals for which no funds have been identified;
(3)to ensure the decisions regarding cross-sectoral issues such as technology transfer and financial resources are consistent with what had been decided about these issues in the plenary;
(4)to remove financial estimates from the chapter.
Canada felt that their objectives were largely achieved. Although the Dublin Guiding Principles were not included verbatim, they were reflected in the text and no new institutional arrangements were recommended.
2. Non-Governmental Organizations
Canadian NGOs focused most of their energies on the January 1992 International Conference on Water and the Environment which fed into the UNCED process, and on the NGO Freshwater Treaty.
NGOs were concerned with preservation of water quality; promotion of conservation, preservation and restoration of aquatic ecosystems; equitable access to potable water and sanitation; the links between freshwater, human health and biodiversity; and the recognition, involvement and support of non-governmental groups in freshwater management planning. These issues were included within Agenda 21, however, NGOs were concerned that the language of Agenda 21 was too vague and specific programmes of action were not included. Some of the specific concerns NGOs had regarding the Chapter 18 included:
the need to balance the chapters onus on improving water resource management in the South, with the need for industrialized countries to decrease water consumption;
weak language regarding the need to address transboundary water issues as a major international priority; and
the emphasis on privatization of water delivery and of the hydrological process;
NGOs were pleased with the emphasis on involving communities and people in participatory freshwater management planning. Women's groups in particular, were pleased with the repeated mention of needing to address the needs, potential and contributions of women in this area.
3. Business and Industry
Canadian business has a vested interest in clean and adequate water supplies currently and into the twenty-first century. The conservation of water and the cascading use of water (cleanest requirements first, using the residual for less and less demanding processes) is a primary focus of pollution prevention initiatives. Business supported the Canadian position at Rio as reflected by the governments Green Plan. They highlighted initiatives such as the pesticide industries support of best management practices to reduce diffuse pollution.
4. Indigenous
Indigenous Peoples need support in establishing Indigenous NGOs, Indigenous knowledge institutions and financial institutions to support sustainable development in terms of freshwater resources. Indigenous rights must be recognized to protect their lands, culture and language which inevitably will preserve their sustainable economic and environment regimes and their sustainable cultures.
COMMITMENTS MADE BY CANADIANS
1. Legally-Binding Documents
While no legally-binding documents directly related to water management were signed at Rio, both the Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Convention on Biological Diversity will have an impact on freshwater resources in Canada.
As Chapter 18 acknowledges in its seventh program area, among the most important impacts of climate change will be its effects on the hydrological cycle and water management systems. As such, the signatory Parties' agreement to take measures to anticipate, prevent or minimize the causes of climate change and mitigate its adverse affects will have important consequences for water supply and demand in Canada.
The objectives of the Biodiversity Convention are "the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources...". Biological diversity defines "the variability among living organisms from all sources including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part...". Commitments made to conserve biological diversity apply equally to aquatic ecosystems, and as such will have implications for the management of Canada's freshwater resources.
Both the legally-binding agreements signed at Rio will have considerable implications for freshwater management in Canada.
2. Political Pronouncements
None.
3. Alternative NGO Treaties and Kari-Oca
NGO Treaties
At the same time as UNCED, two major international events were also held at Rio. One was the International Non-Governmental Organization Forum (Global Forum). At the Global Forum, 3,100 NGOs discussed a number of matters related to environment and development and produced a parallel set of documents: an NGO Earth Charter and 38 Alternative NGO Treaties. Canadian NGOs played a significant role in developing the Treaties and took a lead in coordinating their dissemination. Of these treaties, one addressed the issues discussed in Chapter 18.
NGO Fresh Water Treaty
NGOs in Rio agreed that access to water and sanitation facilities should be a guaranteed right to all people. Market forces cannot solve all the problems. The solution requires a holistic vision of river basins and broad popular participation in managing hydrological systems. NGOs committed to campaign against mining to prevent water contamination. Through the creation of river ecosystem reserves, they want to protect vital parts of river basins, establishing fisheries, reservoirs and recreation sites in these areas. Water conservation should be universally practised.
Kari-Oca
The second alternative forum at Rio was the International Conference on Territory, Environment and Development (the Kari-Oca Conference). The Kari-Oca Conference was held immediately prior to UNCED by and for the world's indigenous peoples. More than 650 indigenous representatives participated in meetings and cultural events during the conference. They developed and adopted a 109-point Indigenous Peoples Earth Charter.
DEFICIENCIES, GAPS AND CONSTRAINTS WITHIN CHAPTER 18
As a general introductory comment, Chapter 18 tends to be overly comprehensive, attempting to include so many considerations for so many countries, that strategic messages of value to individual countries such as Canada are difficult to identify. It is hoped that this chapter assessment will go some way toward focusing on those strategic messages.
As the chapter indicates, there has been a considerable amount of attention given to freshwater issues over the last several decades. National and international goals for freshwater were originally set in 1977 at the UN Water Conference in Mar del Plata, Argentina. In an effort to achieve these goals, the UN established the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade from 1981 to 1990. More recently, the International Conference on Water and the Environment, held in Dublin in 1992, was organized to assist in the development of the content for Agenda 21's Chapter 18 on freshwater resources.
Many of the issues appearing in Chapter 18 have been on national and international agendas for some time. The chapter addresses ongoing problems, and yet it fails to provide a concise update as to the current state of these problems. More critical analysis of the state of the globe's water resources and key emerging issues would have added considerable value to such an ongoing discussion.
The chapter makes the point that economic development and social well-being are often strongly influenced by water resources development. This point could have been highlighted more forcefully. In some countries the lack of an adequate freshwater supply can present a major threat to the health of a population, and in other countries it can be a principal constraint on economic development (this is increasingly likely to be the case in the future).
Highlighting the economic value of water and the economic implications of deteriorating quality and reduced supply might help to raise the profile of water-related issues on both international and national agendas. The importance of obtaining efficiency in water use must be underscored. Demand management approaches are critical for dealing with efficient allocation and use issues, and they require the establishment of economic value.
This kind of strategic recognition of the economic value of water must be integrated with what the chapter correctly identifies as the two priorities in developing and using water resources, namely, satisfying basic needs and safeguarding ecosystems. The economic value of water should be based upon water use value and non-use value. The non-use values (existence values and bequest values) have important implications for biodiversity strategies and inter-generational equity.
Having identified the satisfaction of basic needs and the safeguarding of ecosystems as priorities for water use, the chapter then suggests that beyond these requirements water users should be "charged appropriately". While charging for water use is certainly an issue which needs to be addressed, this chapter fails to give it enough attention. There are serious equity issues associated with the pricing of water, and it would have been useful if the chapter had more fully outlined some of these concerns and the different options available for charging water users.
While the chapter does encourage strengthening institutional capacities for conservation, it fails to emphasize the necessity of doing this in relation to an ecosystem health approach. Such an approach must clearly recognize land development/water use relationships as well as social economic considerations at all stages of the decision-making process. Chapter 18 falls short in addressing the need for reform in legislation, policies, processes etc. in order to provide for management within an ecosystem perspective.
Finally, the chapter, as demonstrated by its subtitle, is focused on the concept of integrated water resources planning and management. Unfortunately, it fails to provide any kind of a logical framework for such integrated management. It presents a long list of issues which need to be addressed under seven separate program areas. Many issues recur under different program areas. Not enough effort was made to reconstruct the freshwater management problem and to present it in a way that would should how this issue is interconnected with so many others (air pollution, agriculture, forestry, oceans, human settlements, population, over-consumption etc.).
Having had 20 or more years of experience at the international level trying to address issues of freshwater resource management, there is surprisingly little innovation in this chapter. It does cover many of the pieces of the puzzle, but it fails to describe them in a way that could assist governments in approaching water management from a truly integrated perspective.
This chapter lacks a sense of urgency. Freshwater is critical to human survival. Practical means must be found of implementing some of the principles, policies and programs which have been described and designed over the years, and this chapter fails to give much guidance as to how to ensure that happens.
COMPARISON BETWEEN CURRENT CANADIAN GOVERNMENT POLICY AND COMMITMENTS MADE
There is very little in Chapter 18 which commits Canada to anything beyond what our own policies and approach to water management already include.
Water management in Canada is largely the responsibility of provincial governments. Water issues vary across jurisdictions and different approaches to management have been adopted by different provincial governments. In a number of cases agreements have been reached between jurisdictions to manage transboundary waters (e.g. the McKenzie River Basin Master Agreement which is currently being developed).
The federal government, however, retains significant water management responsibilities which are reflected in the Federal Water Policy of 1987. The Policy clearly enunciates most of the positions taken in the UNCED documents. Flowing from this Policy, the government's Green Plan (1990) outlined a number of specific goals, the first of which was clean air, water and land. As a target under that broad goal it was agreed that we should try to achieve the "protection and enhancement of the quality of our water resources and promotion of the wise and efficient use of our water".
The Green Plan outlines five programs through which to achieve the target. These include:
securing safe and dependable supplies of drinking water through the introduction of a Drinking Water Safety Act, developing codes of practice for dealing with groundwater problems, and accelerating the provision of water and sewer systems to Indian reserves;
cleaning up past mistakes focusing efforts first on the Fraser River Basin and Atlantic Harbour "hot spots";
promoting pollution prevention by working with the U.S. on a bilateral action plan for comprehensive pollution prevention in the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River Basin, establishing a Great Lakes Pollution Prevention Centre, and carrying out a study of the Red and Assiniboine River Basins;
encouraging wise water use through improved demand management, realistic pricing and development and application of water conservation technologies; and
improving water science and technology by increased expenditure on water-related science and technology in co-operation with provinces and industry.
These broad issues were all addressed in the Agenda 21 chapter.
Water related commitments made under the Green Plan were not in themselves groundbreaking. They reaffirmed many of the goals and strategies which had already been outlined in 1987 in the government's Federal Water Policy. This policy was developed following an intensive public inquiry in 1985 into federal water policy.
There are many water-related policies or agreements to which the Canadian government has been committed for many years. For example, Canada and the United States have been co-operatively dealing with the management of transboundary waters since 1909 when they signed the Boundary Waters Treaty. Over the years Canada has entered into a number of agreements with the U.S. under the terms of this treaty, perhaps the best known of these being the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreements of 1972, 1978 and 1987.
In some cases, existing Canadian government policies or commitments go beyond what was agreed to in Chapter 18. For example, the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement mentioned above is governed by a number of principles, one being that the discharge of any or all persistent toxic substances must be virtually eliminated. While Chapter 18 talks about pollution prevention, it does not go as far as does the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement in this area. It should be noted that while total elimination of persistent toxic substances is a goal, progress toward achieving it has been slow.
A recent review by Environment Canada of Chapter 18 and Canadian water management initiatives suggests that, for the most part, Canada is aware of the needs outlined in the chapter and policies and programs are often already planned or in place to address these needs. The challenge remains, however, to ensure that objectives are met and plans implemented. This seems to reflect a similar condition at the international level where problems have been recognized and actions required agreed to, but goals and objectives have not yet been achieved.
In reviewing the seven program areas it is possible to identify areas where more work is needed to respond to commitments made in Chapter 18. First, more effort is needed in promoting an integrated approach to decision-making and water management. Where integrated management approaches or plans have been developed, these must be implemented.
Data collection with regard to water quality and quantity issues in Canada has been somewhat variable. Water quantity data is collected to consistent national standards under identical federal-provincial agreements with all 10 provinces and with Indian and Northern Affairs for the two territories. These data are now more readily accessible through the national CD-ROM HYDAT package, which includes user-friendly interpretive software.
Water data are also collected for specific programmes and projects within limited geographical areas and focusing on specific problems or conditions. This fragmented approach is the basis for the conclusion in the report on the State of Canada's Environment (1991), that the national profile of the state of Canada's water resources is essentially a "patchwork" of program specific and regional studies data, particularly with respect to water quality. Efforts should be continued to develop a more consistent national approach to the collection and storage of water quality data. In addition, means must be developed for easier access and interpretation of water quality data for decision makers.
Over 90% of Canadians are served by treated water supplies, and the other 10% use private water systems. About 75% of Canadians living in communities of over 1000 people are served by sewage treatment plants. While this is a strong record, water supply and sanitation services need to be improved on native lands. Some people believe that there is still a need for national drinking water standards in Canada.
It should be emphasized that while Canada is successful in the sense that its citizens are well supplied with water and sanitation services, we are currently the world's second largest per capita consumers of water. More effort will have to be made to develop a water conservation ethic among Canadians.
The program area which likely presents the greatest challenge to Canadians is the one which deals with the protection of water quality. Cleaning up existing pollution, virtually eliminating the discharge of toxic substances, and shifting to a preventive approach to water pollution control are all difficult and critical issues. Canada has a number of policies and programs in place to address these concerns, but what will be very important in the coming years is how successful we are at implementing these.
It would appear that Canada has in many cases already committed itself to the kinds of objectives outlined in Chapter 18. In some cases Canada has policies or agreements in place which commit them to go beyond what was agreed to at UNCED. What remains to be seen is how effectively these commitments are being, and can be implemented.
CANADIAN ACTIVITIES EVOLVING THROUGH THE SUSTAINABILITY PROCESS
There are many initiatives underway in Canada (government and non-government based) which are relevant to this chapter. Remedial action to clean up polluted waters, efforts at pollution prevention, basin-wide or ecosystem approaches to management, and efforts to promote water conservation are all being pursued at some level in Canada today.
The Remedial Action Plan (RAP) program was initiated in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Basin in 1987. Having identified "hot spots" or areas of severe water quality degradation in the Lakes, the purpose of the remedial action program was to establish a process whereby all stakeholders in a community could come together to develop a plan of recovery for their harbour. Having developed the plan, they would then be involved in its implementation. In the 1990 Green Plan, the idea behind these remedial action plans was extended to the Atlantic coast. The Atlantic Coastal Action Plan or ACAP was established to respond in a similar community-based way to the most critical areas of concern on the Atlantic coast.
In addition to this necessary remedial action, it is being recognized in Canada that pollution prevention is the direction in which we must be moving. The federal Department of the Environment now has an Office of Pollution Prevention, and the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment has endorsed a National Pollution Prevention Framework.
Non-governmental organizations and industry have also been active in the area of pollution prevention. In September 1991, the New Directions Group, a voluntary network of citizens, industry CEOs, environmental groups, and other NGOs, released a plan for reducing and eliminating the emission of toxic substances in Canada. They felt a multistakeholder consultative committee should be set up to develop an action plan with specific milestones for the accelerated reduction/elimination of toxics (ARET). An ARET committee has been established, and has begun its work on promoting the voluntary reduction of toxic substances emissions.
A number of strong regional initiatives are underway in an attempt to deal with water issues on a basin-wide level. The Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement, for example, adopts an ecosystem approach to the management of these international waters. The Fraser River Estuary Management Program is another example of an attempt to co-ordinate management roles based on the geography of the river, not artificial jurisdictional lines.
Water conservation is being pursued on two fronts under the Green Plan. A National Water Conservation Conference was held in Winnipeg, Manitoba in 1993. This Conference promoted wiser use of our water resources through movement toward demand management practices, water pricing initiatives and better water conservation technologies. As a result, many governments as well as industry and NGOs are currently considering the issue of water conservation and what kinds of goals and measures to adopt in this area. Consequently, the federal government itself adopted a Water Conservation Plan for federal government facilities which provides for water use efficiency in the government's own operations.
The Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment is committed to the development of a national approach to water use efficiency, beginning with an action plan to promote municipal water use efficiency.
In Alberta, part of the provincial government's effort to improve the management of water resources has focused on developing a methodology for incorporating instream flow needs, which allows managers to address the balance between requirements for allocation purposes and scientifically based needs for protection and maintenance of ecosystems. This attention to instream flow needs is very much in keeping with Chapter 18's focus on the safeguarding of ecosystems.
The National Round Table on the Environment and the Economy, together with the North American Wetlands Conservation Council and other partners convened the Sustaining Wetlands Forum which produced a comprehensive backgrounder on wetlands. Since then, the Canadian Wetlands Conservation Task Force has monitored implementation of the report's 73 recommendations.
Canadian environmental NGOs have lobbied for and/or participated in numerous consultation processes involving water and ecosystem management. These include river basin management initiatives in western Canada; multi-stakeholder discussions on curtailing various forms of water pollution by industry; the development of wetland policies; and the development of provincial water policies. The International Secretariat for Water, an international NGO headquartered in Montreal, promotes co-operation between NGOs of all countries that are involved with drinking water and sanitation improvement in the South.
Much work remains to be done on documenting the state of Canada's water resources, managing conflict over use more effectively (particularly with regard to hydro-electric development), developing more efficient water use practices, preventing pollution, and improving our somewhat preliminary efforts at truly integrated water management.
OTHER RELEVANT INTERNATIONAL SUSTAINABILITY-RELATED FORA
United Nations Conference on Human Environment, Stockholm, Sweden in 1972
United Nations Water Conference, Mar del Plata, Argentina in 1977
This Conference was held in Mar del Plata, Argentina in 1977. It produced the Mar del Plata Action Plan upon which many of the activities in Chapter 18 are based.
United Nations International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade, 1981-1990
The 1980s were dedicated by the UN as a decade in which the international community would make a concerted effort to address drinking water supply and sanitation issues. Not all of the objectives for the decade were met, and chapter 18 reiterates many of these.
International Conference on Water and the Environment, Dublin, Ireland in 1992
This Conference was organized by the World Meteorological Organization in early 1992. It was part of the preparatory process for UNCED, and much of what appears in Chapter 18 emerged from this forum.
Global Consultation on Safe Water and Sanitation for the 1990s, New Delhi, September 10-14 1990
Global Water Quality Monitoring Program (GEMS/WATER)
The environmental assessment arm of UNEP is called Earthwatch. Earthwatch includes the global Environment Monitoring System (GEMS), which coordinates the collection of data worldwide on such trends as climate change, soil degradation and air quality. The Water Quality Monitoring Program collects this kind of data on water quality.
United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) Environmentally Sound Management of Inland Waters (EMINWA)
This program concentrates on promoting cooperation in water matters among countries sharing a common river basin. There are related projects in training and in formulating guidelines and improving methods of analysis and decision-making in water management.
Ramsar Convention
The Ramsar Convention is the 1971 Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat, under which signatory states designate protected wetlands for an International List and agree to make wise use of wetlands, whether or not they are included on the List.
SUGGESTED READINGS AND INFORMATION SOURCES
Colborn, T.E., A. Davidson, S.N. Green, R.A. Hodge, C.I. Jackson, R.A. Liroff. Great Lakes, Great Legacy, (Washington and Ottawa: The Conservation Foundation and The Institute for Research on Public Policy, 1990).
Government of Canada. A Primer on Water, (Ottawa: Environment Canada, 1991).
. Canada's Green Plan, (Ottawa: Environment Canada, 1990).
. Canada's Green Plan and the Earth Summit, (Ottawa: Environment Canada, 1992).
. Canada's National Report: United Nations Conference on Environment and Development Brazil, June 1992, (Ottawa: Environment Canada, 1991).
. Federal Water Policy, (Ottawa, 1987).
. The State of Canada's Environment, (Ottawa: Environment Canada, 1991).
International Development Research Centre (IDRC). Agenda 21: Abstracts, Reviews and Commentaries, (Theodora Carroll-Foster, editor), (Ottawa: IDRC, 1993).
International Conference on Water and the Environment. The Dublin Statement and Report of the Conference. World Meteorological Organization. Geneva. 1992.
Keating, Michael. Agenda for Change: A Plain Language Version of Agenda 21 and the Other Rio Agreements, (Geneva: Centre for Our Common Future, 1993).
Science Council of Canada. Water 2020, Report 40, (Ottawa: Science Council of Canada, June 1988).
World Commission on Environment and Development. Our Common Future, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987)
World Resources Institute. World Resources 1992-1993, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).
Information Sources:
Canadian Institute of Resources Law, Bio Sciences Building, Room 430, University of Calgary, calgary, Alberta, T2N 1N4, tel (403) 220-3200, fax (403) 282-6182.
Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Freshwater Institute, 501 University Crescent, Winnipeg, Manitoba, R3T 2N6, tel (204) 983-5000, fax (204) 984-2401.
Environment Canada, Inland Waters Directorate, Terrasses de la Chaudiere, 10 Wellington Street, Hull, PQ, K1A 0H3 (there are 5 regional offices in addition to the office in Hull).
Great Lakes United, Box 548, Station "A", Windsor, Ontario, N9A 6M6, tel (716) 886-0142, fax (716) 886-0303.
International Joint Commission, Canadian Section, 100 Metcalfe Street, 18th Floor, Ottawa, Ontario, K1P 5M1, tel (613) 995-2984, fax (613) 993-5583.
St. Lawrence Centre, 105 McGill Street, 4th Floor, Montreal, PQ, H2Y 2E7, tel (514) 283-7000, fax (514) 283-1719.
Cite as: Projet de société: Canada and Agenda 21.Winnipeg: IISD, 1995. Online. Internet. http://iisd.ca/worldsd/canada/projet/c18.htm.
