This guide draws on the experience of many individuals and institutions both directly and indirectly.

In 1994-95 the International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) sponsored a series of pilot research projects in five African countries, focusing on agropastoralists in arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs). The outcome of this project was sufficiently encouraging to lead to the hope and expectation that other, similar projects could be undertaken, in order to widen the basis of understanding and policy recommendations. Accordingly this document on participatory research for sustainable livelihoods, prepared for local project coordinators, has been revised and expanded for publication, with a view to assisting those who might wish to undertake similar projects, either in ASALs or other ecosystems, and not necessarily within Africa.

Although each organization will have its own style of operations, and each research situation is different, there are certain common features to projects of this type. The overall design is comparative: countries and sites are selected within an ecosystem family, in order to control one major variable; but within that they should be broadly representative of the range of variance within that family. The implementing agencies for the country projects are envisaged as being, by preference, competent national NGOs with a track record of implementing community-based projects and policy analysis. The concept is that NGOs will, on the basis of a project, document or prospectus (prepared by local communities.) These local communities have collectively devoted many days of their time to communication with outsiders, through "participatory" research. These outsiders have gained credit for their discoveries, such as Livingstone gained credit for "discovering" the Victoria Falls. Some are aware of their indebtedness. The authors of this guide share an indebtedness to the people with whom they have worked, and wish to acknowledge it publicly. We hope to contribute to the correction of the unequal exchange in the field of knowledge through this project.

The process of mutual learning which generated this guide, drew heavily on the work of the six institutions contributing to the IISD project. Collectively they have documented a wealth of practical experience, research, analysis and reflection. These are:

ENDA - Zimbabwe Environment and Development Agency, Zimbabwe
(Harare, Zimbabwe)

GREFCO - Groupe de Recherches de Formation et de Conseils
(Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso)

IISD - The International Institute for Sustainable Development
(Winnipeg, Canada)

KENGO - The Kenya Energy and Environment Organisation
(Nairobi, Kenya)

LEM - Environment and Development Society of Ethiopia ["Lem" is the Amharic word for "green"]
(Addis Ababa, Ethiopia)

WRF - The University of the Witwatersrand Rural Facility
(Johannesburg, South Africa)

Prior to a workshop with the participating institutions, the project's International Advisory Group (IAG) contributed valuable inputs, suggestions, and advice, reflected in the revised research protocol. Their substantive contributions, thoughtful observations and occasionally vigorous arguments, are reflected throughout. This guide was the result of a collective process of discussion and debate; some key sources:

• Daniel Thieba's co-authored manual on PRA methods based on two years of conducting PRA training and exercises in several francophone West African countries;
• the Eastern Transvaal PRA workshop report; and
• the many conceptual papers and project documents by Naresh Singh and Vangile Titi of IISD.

We have also drawn extensively on Keith Rennie's varied experiences over many years in several anglophone African countries. The IISD has played a catalytic role in formulating the project idea and providing the resources and management required to bring it to fruition.

The framework for evalutating sustainable livelihood outcomes was the result of diligent effort by IISD staff - Laurie Ham, Marion Meyer, John Sinclair, and Naresh Singh in consultation with a wide variety of academics and evaluation practicioners.