Some of the adaptive strategies were common to almost all the groups:

• Multi-species composition of herds
• Cultivation of more than one type of grain staple: sorghum, millet and maize
• Community regulations for the maintenance of eco-system health: bans on cutting of certain types of trees (e.g. acacia), preservation of certain areas of the forest commons, regulations for the use of water and forest resources
• Adoption of irrigated agriculture where opportunities permit
• Use of "modern" veterinary services where services are available
• Supplementary feeding of livestock as seasonally required

Other adaptive strategies were specific to the groups:

• Supplementary income sources from outside the community: gold panning in Makaha, Zimbabwe; sale of livestock; seeking employment in neighbouring South Africa and Botswana
• Community management of wells among the Boran
• Community regulations governing the provision of social safety nets among the Boran and Afar
• Communal decision-making about the movement of livestock, and in the case of the Afar, the sale of cattle and camels has to be approved communally
• Reliance on new forms of social organisations, such as village committees, religious organisations and NGOs in Kenya, South Africa and Zimbabwe.