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Planning for a Sustainable Future: The Case of the North American Great
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Sustainability of the Semiarid Prairie Ecosystem The Prairie Ecosystem Study (PECOS) is an interdisciplinary study involving scientists at the universities of Saskatchewan and Regina, Environment Canada, and Agriculture Canada. The study area encompasses 15,700 km2 of the semiarid prairie region, or Palliser Triangle, which is primarily a wheat-producing region with large and highly capitalized farms (mixed grain-livestock farms or ranches). The study area contains a variety of landscapes and soils, ranging from the level, highly productive clay soils in the northwestern part with large wheat farms to hilly, stony, or sandy soils where grazing is the dominant land use. The South Saskatchewan River crosses the area from west to east. The area is at the margin of cultivated agriculture, limited by the semiarid climate with 300 to 350 mm precipitation. Problems in the area include the uncertain climate, with the prospect of greater frequency of droughts in many climate change scenarios; depressed prices for products; declining rural communities and services; concerns about the well-being of the people; and concerns of soil and environmental quality. PECOS brings together scientists from agricultural, biological, health, engineering, and socioeconomic spheres to address questions relating to the sustainability of the region. Included on the study team are adjunct professors from the Canadian Wildlife Service and National Hydrology Research Centre, research centers of Environment Canada, and Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada's Swift Current Research Station. The study has three foci. The first is socioeconomic, with an emphasis on the factors that influence agricultural practices (and conservation) and community development. Five students will be involved in research project A (Determinants of Agricultural Practices) and six will be involved in research project B (Agriculture and the Structure of Rural Communities). The research carried out in project A will focus on the following areas: (1) the role of economic policy and incentives in agricultural practice, (2) social and cultural determinants of agricultural practice, (3) the history of social settlement and ecology of the study area, (4) an examination of sustainability at the farm level, and (5) philosophical dimensions of sustainability. The research carried out in project B will focus on the following areas: (1) community living and well-being of the elderly, (2) rural crime and justice, (3) health policy and practice, (4) educational reform, (5) the economic stability of communities, and (6) the overall sustainability of the communities. The second focus is an assessment of the potential health risk associated with exposure to environmentally occurring pesticides and toxic elements. The objectives of Study Focus 2 are to (1) characterize the pesticide exposure levels of farm families and town residents living in the study area; (2) assess the extent to which exposure to the herbicides or insecticides is associated with acute health effects (i.e., changes in neuro-behavioral function and induction of auto-antibodies); (3) explore the nature and extent of pesticide residues and trace elements in drinking water, and evaluate the potential synergistic or antagonistic acute effects of these on human health (neuro-behavioral, immunological, and respiratory) outcomes; (4) understand the individual's and community's perspective on the relative importance of pesticide-related health problems; and (5) assess the feasibility of conducting a similar interdisciplinary prospective cohort study, using the methods proposed for this study, in the same and other populations (Saskatchewan native people, MÈtis, and Hutterites) with differing farming practices. The third focus addresses the health of the land and the biota. The impact of agriculture, particularly today's agriculture based on reduced tillage and greater use of herbicides, will be assessed from several integrated perspectives: soil quality, transport of contaminants with sediments in runoff, ecotoxicology of potholes within agricultural land, hydrological processes and soil moisture, biodegradation of herbicides, and trace element biogeochemistry. Three projects will deal with biodiversity, concentrating on the vegetation (in natural and cultivated ecosystems), the genetic diversity of bird species, and fungal biodiversity in native, burned, and cultivated ecosystems. A project dealing with fire and its effects on mid-grass prairie is planned for the Matador grassland reserve, and several projects that deal with biodiversity will provide descriptive ecology and contribute to knowledge for selecting and setting up interpretive trails of interest to local students and ecotourists. There will be work on the ecology of woody shrubs and effects of agriculture, and on the food chain of upland birds and water fowl within agricultural areas. Ranching, and the potential for diversifying local economies by expanding livestock farming (both grazing and intensive operations such as swine operations), will be examined in relation to socioeconomic factors and more sustainable land use. The research strategies of the three foci are interwoven and include joint sampling and data acquisition and a shared geographical information system (GIS) data base. The study will be community-based, involving local people in the design and implementation of the study. A research center will be set up within the study area to promote interaction among investigators and students as well as with residents of the study area. Graduate student training is an important component
of PECOS, with a requirement for interdisciplinary approaches, common study
areas, and linked and shared data bases. The study should provide input for the
formulation of policies in agriculture, land use, and social development within
the region, as influenced by external factors such as national policies,
international trade, and global change.
The Wetland Development Program in the Great
Plains Region of the Bureau of Reclamation The Great Plains Region's Wetland Development Program
was conceived and proposed for funding in 1989 in response to the nation's
growing concern over avoidable and unmitigated impacts to wetlands and riparian
habitat and in an effort to help the administration attain its "no net loss"
of wetlands goal. The Region's Wetland Development Program has been largely
successful in contributing to these goals and continues to generate support from
throughout the Bureau of Reclamation, the administration, and the public. The
agency now promotes the Wetland Development Program as an example of its
commitment to undertake programs with a major emphasis on resource management
and greater environmental sensitivity. The Wetland Development Program consists
of an ambitious effort to restore, enhance, and develop wetlands and riparian
habitat throughout a nine-state area stretching east from the continental divide
through North Dakota south to the Gulf of Mexico. Public and private
partnerships developed through the Wetland Development Program have been
responsible for construction of wetland impoundments and moist soil management
units in North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, Nebraska, and Oklahoma; wetland
and riparian habitat enhancement in Colorado, Wyoming, and Texas; and North
American Waterfowl Management Plan joint venture activities in North Dakota,
Montana, and Nebraska. Projects have been completed in every state within the
Region and additional projects are in varying stages of planning and completion.
Integrating Concepts and Practices of Sustainable Development into a Non-major Science Course This exhibit describes a process of introducing college freshmen to the basics of sustainable management of Great Plains resources by integrating principles, concepts, and practices into a traditional course in general biology for non-majors. Students from the disciplines of business, economics, sociology, education, and the humanities are exposed to the values of permanence in the Great Plains ecosystem. Biome studies consider global problems but emphasize impacts of climate change, annual monocultures, declining fossil fuel supplies, point and nonpoint pollution, aquifer and wetland depletion, introduction of exotics, and the role of population pressures on the integrity of the future of the Great Plains. Terminology and principles necessary to understanding
the topics of sustainable management are introduced as they relate to specific
case histories of Great Plains resource ecology and management. Economic,
social, and ecological relationships are illustrated with each case history.
Students are asked to write short essays on sustainable planning as it relates
to their academic discipline. Pre- and post-tests measure changes in knowledge
and attitudes concerning sustainable development issues. Consequences of no or
poor planning on the future of the region are discussed. The geology, ecology,
and case studies of sustainable development are illustrated with Kodachromes and
videos, and field trips are planned to examine the results of sustainable
planning. The course seeks to equip students to make sound decisions affecting
the future of the Great Plains environment.
Composted and Noncomposted Beef Feedlot
Manure Effects on Corn Production and Soil Properties Composted and noncomposted manure can be used as nutrient sources for crop production. The effectiveness of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) loading rates of these organic nutrient sources for crop production and their effects on soil properties and environment need further study. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of composted and noncomposted beef feedlot manure at different loading rates and application times on corn production and soil properties. Composted and noncomposted beef cattle feedlot manure was applied to meet N or P requirements of corn for either one- or two-year periods. Plots with adequate manure or compost for corn P requirements also received additional N as fertilizer (ammonium nitrate). Fertilizer and no-fertilizer checks were also included in the experiment. Nitrogen and P requirements of corn were determined based on the removal of N (151 kg ha-1) and P (25.8 kg ha-1) by corn with an expected yield level of 9.4 Mg ha-1 (150 bu acre-1). The manure and compost N and P availability were assumed to be 40%, 20%, 10%, and 5% of total N and P in the first, second, third, and fourth year after application, respectively. These numbers were later modified to 20%, 20%, 10%, and 5% for compost N and 40%, 20%, 10%, and 5% for manure N; 60%, 20%, 10%, and 10% were used for manure or compost P applied in 1994. We have been applying manure and composted manure in the autumn of each year or every other year since 1992. The materials were disked in soon after application. The area was planted to corn (rainfed) every spring. After corn harvest in the autumn of 1993 and 1994, soil samples were taken to 1.2 m depth from all plots. The samples were used to determine several soil properties. In 1993, corn grain yield increased with manure or
compost application compared with the no-fertilizer check (Table 1). Corn
receiving manure produced similar or slightly higher grain than the fertilizer
check. Composted manure was not as effective as noncomposted manure or
fertilizer check. Applying noncomposted or composted manure to satisfy corn P
requirements, with more N added as fertilizer, resulted in the same grain yield
as manure or compost application for plant N requirement or fertilizer check.
Compost or manure applied for N or P requirements of corn for two years resulted
in grain yield similar to that for the fertilizer check. Composted manure was
not as effective as noncomposted manure or fertilizer in the first year of
application, probably because of the assumed low N availability from composted
manure. First-year N availability from composted manure was about 20% of total
N; we had assumed it to be about 40%.
Grain yields were similar for all manure, compost,
and fertilizer treatments in 1994 (Table 1). It seems that when adjusted for N
availability, manure and compost can provide corn grain yield that is equivalent
to or greater than fertilizer application. However, surface soil levels of plant
available P, NO3-Nion, and EC were significantly greater with higher rates of
manure and compost application than for fertilizer, check, or manure or compost
application for plant P requirements. These high levels of salt, nitrate, and P
can be carried by runoff and contaminate surface waters. Nitrate also has the
potential to leach into the ground water. In 1993, the Bray and Kurtz #1 P soil
test extracted 70% of manure P and 64% of compost P that were applied in 1992.
This indicates high plant availability of manure or compost P. It seems that
manure or compost application to provide plant P requirements, with additional N
as fertilizer, is a viable option for producing high grain yield with no or very
few adverse effects on the soil and the environment. High rates of manure or
compost application have the potential to contaminate the surface and ground
waters.
Using Plant Pathogens as Biological Weed
Control Agents: Rose Rosette Disease Multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora Thunb), a thorny shrub native to Japan and other areas of northeast Asia, has naturalized over much of the eastern two-thirds of the United States. Land infested by this plant quickly becomes unsuitable for either pasture or recreational uses. Rose rosette disease, lethal to multiflora rose, is now present in most of the naturalized range of this weedy plant. The causal agent of this disease has a very narrow host range, and our research has shown that it is both effective and safe as a biological agent for the control of multiflora rose. The disease occurs sporadically in the field and, under most circumstances, does not result in the elimination of multiflora rose. We have found that by augmenting the natural infection occurring in the field, the disease can be intensified in selected tracts of rose-infested land to eliminate more than 98% of the multiflora rose stand in five to six years. Ornamental rose plantings located more than one-half mile from the treated land are not subject to any greater-than-normal risk of infection from this process. Persons interested in using this system of multiflora
rose control will be expected to attend a two-hour training session (Extension).
Application of this biological control system in the field will involve about
two hours of labor and less than $1.50 for expendable materials per site (field,
pasture, and so forth).
Beginning Farmers and Sustainable
Agriculture: A Sustainable Future for the Great Plains The Beginning Farmer Sustainable Agriculture Project has worked since 1991 to increase the ability of beginning farmers to enter farming using environmentally sustainable practices. Mutual-help discussion groups, farmer-designed education programs, and other support for learning about and experimenting with whole-farm sustainable agricultural systems have improved the success of a study group of farmers in northeast Nebraska. These farmers have tried, implemented, and, in turn, taught sustainable agriculture practices to others during the project period. Sustainable farming practices that conserve natural resources and minimize use of nonrenewable resources are a good fit with beginning farmers. Beginning farmers are receptive to these practices because they have not yet committed to a particular type of farming. Such practices fit their resources of management ability, labor availability, and creativity. These farmers are the strategically critical population to achieve a sustainable agriculture because of agricultural demographics. The average age of U.S. farmers is 50 years, and more than half of U.S. farmland is controlled by farmers likely to retire in the next decade. Young farmers who succeed these senior farmers will control the farmland resource base for the next generation, offering a significant opportunity to improve the environmental stewardship and sustainability of U.S. agriculture. The project has discovered special needs of beginning farmers. They need information geared to limited-resource farming because they cannot afford the capital-intensive technology of conventional agriculture. They need information geared to beginners and their existing resources, typically about use of crops, facilities, and other resources indigenous to the farm rather than purchased off-farm. They need social outlets and peer support, because alternative approaches are often denigrated locally and because they may be isolated socioculturally. They need thriving rural economies, since most need off-farm jobs to support the farm while it develops enough to support both growth and family living expenses. Contrary to a recent report that global warming would have little overall effect on U.S. agriculture and that an increase in irrigation would suffice to offset changes, we believe a more complex and environmentally sound response to climate change will be required. In an era of environmental and economic instability, sustainable agriculture techniques that increase farm biological diversity, environmental stability, and flexibility in management will ensure the survival of both farmers and our food supply system. We have begun to equip beginning farmers with the managerial tools to make such a transition in their agriculture. Several have already taken steps to address social, economic, and environmental sustainability on their farms. An additional project begun in 1994, the Nebraska Ag
IMPACT Project, extends group activities to established farmers and non-farm
community members across Nebraska. These groups are learning about, researching,
and demonstrating environmentally sound farming practices that benefit their
farms and communities. Local projects include controlled grazing in riparian
areas, farm marketing and management for women, maintaining grass cover on CRP
land, computer linkages for farm information exchange, and organic certification
of farm crops. These groups have actively engaged farmers and ranchers,
Extension personnel, researchers, technical assistance providers, and community
members.
Education and Research to Support Sustainable
Development: A Regional Mandate in the North Central United States
Collaboration in the north central United States
among universities, federal and state governments, private foundations,
nonprofit organizations, farmers and ranchers, and commercial interests has
resulted in a comprehensive education and research effort to promote sustainable
development. Aware of the fragile ecosystem and complicated government program
environment, specialists have planned and implemented an innovative portfolio of
research activities related to efficient resource use in crop and animal
systems. Alternatives that are profitable in the short and long terms and that
promote a healthy environment have been tested and demonstrated with
collaboration of farmers and ranchers in the region. Multidisciplinary and
multistate projects have been financed by the federal Sustainable Agriculture
Research and Education Program and the Agriculture in Concert with the
Environment Program, and by numerous private initiatives funded by W. K.
Kellogg, Northwest Area, and other foundations in the region. Innovative
education efforts in the classroom and in Extension settings are building the
potentials for a lifelong involvement in learning. Research and education
symposia have been sponsored in several states to share results and ideas. A
major book series, Our Sustainable Future, has been launched by the University
of Nebraska Press. Educators and farmers are currently exploring the feasibility
of a regional institute for sustainable systems that would offer undergraduate
and graduate educational opportunities, using the concept of a university
without walls and a faculty that includes academics, farmers, ranchers, business
people, nonprofit group specialists, government agency personnel, and others.
Major policy work has been accomplished by the Center for Rural Affairs and the
Sustainable Agriculture Working Group. This regional model provides an example
of seeking shared goals and pooled resources toward a common and sustainable
future.
Community-based Decision Making and
Collaborative Policy Development Strategies As an objective third party, the Center for Environmental Solutions (CES) is engaged in facilitating consensus-building initiatives among divergent and competing interest groups. This symposium has pointed out that future success in sustainable development in the North American Great Plains will depend on the experiences and involvement of citizen groups, communities, commodity organizations, and government agencies. Further, it has become clear that the implementation of Agenda 21, the "blueprint" of sustainable development principles developed at the Rio Earth Summit, must be actively pursued on the local level. At the symposium's demonstration showcase session, CES material highlighted both community-based participatory decision-making models (for example, community advisory panels) and collaborative policy development strategies (e.g., policy dialogues and regulatory negotiations). The objective was to make symposium participants aware of constructive ways to resolve conflicts that can result when different stakeholding interest groups (such as those noted above) converge in response to a pressing issue. A critical component in successfully confronting and resolving sustainable development challenges is to design a framework that (1) acknowledges conflicting perspectives and (2) strives to incorporate stakeholders' values and critical interests in making decisions that will ultimately affect them. We hope that attendees who visited the CES area departed with greater awareness of alternative problem-solving mechanisms as well as some new insights that will encourage them to approach sustainable development challenges in a new way. A short video was presented that addressed issues associated with governmental leadership and how different kinds and styles of leadership result in particular policy decisions and affect public perceptions. A number of informational resources were available as well. The principles and tools of public participation,
collaboration, and participatory decision making are crosscutting and relevant
to all aspects of sustainable development. Building consensus and establishing
multidisciplinary partnerships will play a critical role in educating various
public and private entities and motivating them to action.
Partners FOR the Saskatchewan River Basin:
Working Together for a Sustainable Future The Saskatchewan River Basin is one of the largest and most diverse basins on the North American Great Plains. It is an international watershed draining more than 150,000 square miles, including portions of Montana and the three prairie provinces. Some 2.8 million people rely on its aquatic and related land resources for their economic and cultural well-being. Hydroelectric, flood control, agriculture, industrial, domestic, and recreational needs from both inside and outside the basin increasingly put pressure on the resource. Environmental problems associated with the Saskatchewan River systems, although significant, are not severe enough to prevent broad-based cooperation and commitment to preventative action from being effective in achieving sustainable development of the northern plains' most vital resource - water. Before formation of the Partners project, there was no cohesive mechanism to link the basin's many jurisdictions, local governments, and academic, business, education, and other nongovernment organizations in a concerted effort to focus on the future of the basin ecosystem. Emerging interjurisdictional issues in the area of water resource management, allocation, pricing, diversion, quality, and climatic change will require an approach in which these issues can be discussed intelligently and considered by the public from a practical and informed perspective to ensure their successful resolution. Partners FOR the Saskatchewan River Basin is one such approach. This initial three-year Environmental Citizenship program is designed to develop awareness and knowledge of and commitment to sustaining the aquatic and related land resources of the Saskatchewan River Basin. It can be described as an evolving case study in contemporary thinking about decision making and practicing partnerships. The project uses an ecosystem approach, integrating economics, environment, and society, the cornerstones of sustainable development. It employs an innovative operational model that functions to close the gap between the individual and senior policy and decision makers. In so doing, it becomes grassroots-based. The project is committed to ensuring the equitable expression of the views and perspectives of all sectors, including industry, government, environment, education, and cultural organizations. The measurable results after 24 months of operation include:
The Partners project is managed by the Meewasin Valley Authority, a river corridor conservation agency established by provincial statute and based in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. Partners FOR the Saskatchewan River Basin is planning for a sustainable future through informing, educating, and motivating the citizens of the basin. There will be difficult decisions to make in the future; an informed public must be part of the process. The project is funded in part by Environment Canada
with matching funding from government and nongovernment organizations throughout
the basin.
The Great Plains International Data Network: Supporting Science on the Great Plains The Great Plains has experienced more change in land cover resulting from agricultural development than any other region in North America. More than 70% of the Plains' original grasslands have been converted to agricultural or other altered land uses. Although environmental researchers are now concerned about losing further diversity of biological resources, residents of rural communities are concerned about protecting their economic stability and livelihoods. These differing, and sometimes opposing, concerns, combined with obstacles to sharing data and information, detract from progress toward solving issues by both rural residents and scientific researchers. Although research is being conducted on many issues concerning the Great Plains, activities are often carried out in relative isolation, and the results frequently are not widely available to other scientists, policy makers, and the local population. Sharing of data and results within the scientific community is needed to reduce redundant or unnecessary research, and, perhaps more importantly, to stimulate discussion. To make wise decisions on the local level, policy makers need access to current, accurate, nonbiased information covering a variety of topics including, but not limited to, natural resources, landownership, agricultural practices, biodiversity, water quality, population, and economics. A major challenge is to transfer the knowledge gained through scientific research to practical applications in the public and private sector. New forms of collaboration and data exchange are needed to cross institutional, international, and political boundaries, and flexible tools are needed for data integration and exchange. The Great Plains International Data Network (GPIDN) was formed in 1993 to address these basic data access and integration issues. Objectives of the GPIDN include identifying the requirements for data, determining what data exist, developing the means to exchange data, and providing information and results to the network members and the general public. The major participants in the formation of the GPIDN include the Environmental Protection Agency, The Nature Conservancy, and the government of Manitoba. These organizations all have representation in the Coordinating Committee of the network. Membership in the Data Network is open to all parties interested in participating in a Great Plains program that facilitates access, exchange, and integration of data bases relating to the region. Current activities include an inventory of Great Plains data sets in North American universities, government agencies, and private organizations; development of network access to ongoing research results and data; the design of information products (including a Great Plains atlas); and the identification of resources for GPIDN activities. The GPIDN has made an initial step toward improving
communication and providing access to data and results. Staff at the EPA
Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory in Las Vegas have designed and
implemented a hypertext home page, which is accessible through the Internet
using a World Wide Web browser such as National Center for Supercomputing
Applications' Mosaic. This provides the GPIDN with a mechanism for communication
and, in the future, actual exchange of data and results between scientists,
policy makers, and local residents of the North American Great Plains.
Red River-Lake Winnipeg Agricultural
Sustainability: An Ecosystemic Approach The "Tobacco Creek" initiative is a multiagency, multidisciplinary study with a high level of local agricultural producer involvement. The 10-year study, which started in 1991, seeks to evaluate agricultural impacts on the environment and to recommend and implement best management practices through citizenship, partnerships, environmental guidelines, and economic instruments. A nested study design is employed. Soil erosion, runoff, and nutrient and pesticide flux are measured at two small (10 hectares) experimental watersheds in the headwaters of South Tobacco Creek (STC), the north arm of STC, and STC near the mouth (70 km2). The latter site has long-term runoff and sediment load records. Atmospheric deposition of chemicals, precipitation, snow cover, and soil and air temperatures are also recorded at the experimental watersheds. The area consists primarily of moderately sloped hummocky moraines that are largely cultivated (70% of the area) and forested escarpments and deeply incised stream valleys. Detailed information on agricultural management practice is obtained through the Deerwood Soil and Water Management Association and local producers for 300 separate fields comprising 76 km2 (19,000 acres). Almost all of STC and part of North Tobacco Creek are surveyed. Information includes crop type, dates seeded and harvested, and yields; agri-chemical use; tillage practice; manure application rates and dates; straw management practices; ground cover; and so forth. The cooperation of the local producers is essential to obtain this level of proprietary information. The detailed agricultural practice information is supplemented with chemical use by the rural municipalities. Basinwide detailed soil characteristics, including chemistry, are available and stream, riparian, and upland sediment budgets are being documented to evaluate nonpoint source pollution and its evolution downstream. Stream channel and riparian sources appear to be a major source of sediment and nutrients. To scale up the small basin detailed monitoring and modeling, 14 major tributaries and main stem sites on the Red River are continuously monitored for streamflow and sampled for sediment, pesticide, and nutrient flux on an event basis. These data are to be combined with census data and detailed soil chemistry to model sources, pathways, fates, and effects of agricultural, municipal, and urban activities in the Lake Winnipeg drainage. Following a model calibration period, which may take several years, land uses will be manipulated and changes compared with model predictions. The second phase of the project, which is in its formative stage, will examine the effects of agriculture and other land uses (municipalities and cities) on the sustainability of the ecosystem (i.e., economic viability of best management practices, and impacts on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems). An understanding of land use management effects on
ecosystems is fundamental to sustainability. Environmental and economic models
will be evaluated with measured ecosystem responses to land use changes. The
results may be used to make informed decisions about agricultural best
management practices and to help in the development of relevant and effective
guidelines for agricultural practice.
The Prairie Ecozone Planning Framework: An
Ecosystemic Approach to the Activities of the Department of Environment Environment Canada, Prairie and Northern Region, is undertaking an ecozone planning process to help it define the issues, knowledge gaps, and priorities on which it should be focusing its resources. This process will provide the rationale for its research and its monitoring and assessment programs, and it will also provide opportunities for partners to discuss and develop effective and efficient cooperative arrangements. Because of the size (approximately 5 million km2) and diversity of the Prairie and Northern Region, it is proposed that the planning be based on the region's major ecozones (prairies, boreal, cordillera, taiga, and arctic), which extend across geopolitical boundaries (Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, and the Northwest Territories). Environment Canada (EC) is planning to host workshops for each of these ecozones to obtain the assistance of other federal departments, the provinces and territories, universities, and other stakeholders in defining knowledge gaps and priority issues. It is proposed that the knowledge gaps and priority issues be defined without limitations of jurisdiction or mandate. Once the gaps and priorities have been defined, the partners will determine the roles and responsibilities of the participants. To understand the implications of taking an ecozone-based ecosystem approach to planning, and to facilitate the workshops, an ecosystem framework document has been drafted and preliminary situational analyses have been undertaken. These analyses address areas that are thought to be within the mandate of EC. The situational analysis has taken the following
form, although this is expected to evolve with the addition of stressors and the
participation of partners: 1. Stressor analysis: issues and effects of the stressor. 2. Management questions: (a) public/policy questions; (b) institutional questions; (c) science questions. 3. Results to be achieved (without jurisdiction or mandate constraints). 4. Strategies: for science, management, and service/citizenship. 5. Roles and responsibilities of EC. 6. Business plans for EC. 7. Information needs, including hydrology and climate. 8. Implications for EC: (a) linkages to existing
programs; (b) critical success factors (i.e., what is required in terms of
funding, expertise, partnerships, and so forth to deliver the required results). A prairie ecozone workshop was planned for the fall
of 1995. Environment Canada will use the results of the workshop to help define
its long-term agenda in the ecozone and to build partnerships. This workshop
will engage the participants in dialogue concerning the merits of the proposed
approach.
Water Quality Assessment in the Great Plains:
Assurance of a Sustainable Future The ocean of grass once native to the Great Plains is now one of the most productive agricultural regions in the world. Evaporation progressively exceeds precipitation from east to west and north to south. This sometimes harsh and often water-limited environment challenges policy makers and water managers who are responsible for assuring the long-term availability of public water supplies, irrigation, and aquatic habitats. A scientific look at the hydrology of this landscape would help assess its sustainability, economic value, and environmental and biological quality. The U.S. Geological Survey began the National Water Quality Assessment Program (NAWQA) in 1991. Goals of the program are to describe the status of and trends in the quality of a large representative part of the nation's surface and ground water resources and to provide a sound scientific understanding of the primary natural and human factors affecting the quality of these resources. The principal design of the NAWQA program is based on study unit investigations of hydrologic systems that include parts of most major river basins and aquifer systems in the Great Plains. All or part of 18 study units that are up to 40,000 sq mi in size cover the Great Plains. The Central Nebraska Basins study unit is typical of the study units in the Great Plains. Production agriculture is the primary economic base and a major factor in policy decisions. This area is dominated by large contiguous areas of cropland in the Platte River valley, in contrast to large areas of grassland in the Sandhills. The Platte River alluvium serves as the source for most of the public water supply and a major source of irrigation water. Public water supplies rely on induced recharge of Platte River water to the alluvium to sustain supplies. In addition to water supplies, streams and wetlands serve as aquatic habitat for typical prairie species and include critical habitat for endangered species in the middle reach of the Platte River. Water quality is an important consideration in this area because of the extensive use of agricultural chemicals. Increased concentration of nitrate in ground water and large concentrations of pesticides in the Platte River threaten public supply wells in the alluvium. The critical habitat reaches of the Platte River and other wetland areas are also vulnerable to water quality degradation from agricultural chemicals. The NAWQA study in central Nebraska will provide essential information to address these water quality issues. Water quality samples have been collected at 9 fixed sites on the Platte River and selected tributaries to determine concentrations of pesticides and nutrients. Sampling schedules have been designed to document spring runoff when concentrations of pesticides are the largest. Low-flow samples have been collected at about 30 selected sites to determine baseline concentrations of pesticides and nutrients. Ground water sampling wells have been drilled at multiple depths at selected locations in the alluvium to determine the sources and three-dimensional movement of pesticides and nutrients, particularly nitrate, in the alluvium of the Platte River valley. Ecological information is being collected at the 9 fixed sites and at about 30 wetland sites to determine the biological and aquatic habitat characteristics of the study area, particularly those aquatic habitats critical to threatened species. Interpretive analysis of the field information is
focused on the water supply and aquatic and riparian habitat issues in the study
unit. Results are communicated through traditional reports, magazines, and
journals. In addition, meetings are held with a liaison committee whose
membership includes local and special interest organizations, and state and
federal agencies. The liaison committee generally meets twice a year to assist
in planning activities, review and comment on interim results, and facilitate
communication of results. Implications of NAWQA results will influence water
policy and water quality management in the central Nebraska study unit. Similar
activities and results from other study units will collectively contribute to
more informed water policy for the Great Plains.
The Role of Wetlands in Sustainable
Agricultural Systems Wetlands affect the sustainability of agriculture by providing hay and forage, trapping sediment and runoff, and storing water for crop use. Agricultural practices can influence wetland water quantity and quality, habitat value, and species diversity. The specific objectives of this project are to (1) research the impact of farm production systems on avian populations, (2) determine the effects of farm production systems on water quantity and quality of wetland areas that are hydrologically linked to ground water, (3) estimate production costs and net returns of farm production systems adapted to the field tracts, and (4) compare selected economic and environmental tradeoffs between different farm production systems in agricultural wetland areas. Three farmers who own and operate farms (conventional [CON], transitional no-till [TNT], and organic [ORG]) in the Prairie Pothole Region (PPR) are cooperators. The TNT and CON management systems use synthetic fertilizers and generally no pesticides. The scientists and technical people involved in the study have expertise in the areas of agronomy, economics, microbiology, and wildlife. Analysis of biodiversity of wetlands in the different agricultural systems is underway. Waterfowl pair counts averaged across wetland classes indicated greater species richness in the ORG system than in the other two systems. Also, species diversity of wetland vegetation is greater in the ORG system. Water budgets were determined for upland and wetland sites. At the upland sites, precipitation was 85% of the input, with soil water supplying 15% of the output. The major output was evapotranspiration (72%). At the wetland site, runon was the major input to the water budget (60%). Overflow accounted for 36% of the wetland output and surface storage/seepage accounted for 40%. Evapotranspiration at the wetland site was much lower than at the upland site. Nitrate concentrations were consistently higher in the semipermanent wetland areas than in the seasonal wetland areas. Orthophosphate concentrations were not significantly different between these two wetland classifications in 1993, but were higher in seasonal than in semipermanent wetland areas in 1994. The data show a steady decrease in phosphate concentration as we move upland in the landscape. Higher concentrations in wetland than in upland ground water may indicate that some soluble P is moving through the system and/or that the sorption capacity of the wetland soils has been exceeded. The relative ranking of net returns by management systems from 1992 to 1994 are TNT > CON > ORG. However, high levels of organic premiums from marketing 1994 crops changed the ranking to ORG > TNT > CON. Production costs per acre by management system from lowest to highest are ORG < TNT < CON. The organic (ORG) system has lower reported average yields and considerably lower production costs per acre than the other management systems. The organic system also has greater reliance on a diversified crop rotation system. The TNT system generally has the least diversity of crop rotations, intermediate-level production costs, and similar yields or higher yields than reported in the CON system. The added costs of more tillage and machinery operations in the CON system exceeds any reduction in chemical costs compared to the TNT system. Crop yields were collected by plant scientists from monitored wetland sites adjacent to crop fields. Yields were collected from the following distances: first crop row at the wetland border, and 75', 150', and 300' out from the first crop row sampled. Net returns were calculated based on collected yields. The analysis indicated that the 1992 and 1994 averaged net returns for corn were negative in the first crop row and increasingly positive at each distance out from the wetland to 300'. "Model" farms that incorporate natural
resource characteristics and suggest specific management systems for wetlands in
agricultural areas of the Prairie Pothole Region are being developed. These
model farms will be used to further study the possible impacts of wetlands on
the sustainability of agricultural systems in the region.
Long-term Ecological Research at the Konza
Prairie Research Natural Area: Lessons in Sustainability from a Native Great
Plains Ecosystem Since 1981, scientists at the Konza Prairie Research
Natural Area in northeast Kansas have been involved in the National Science
Foundation supported program of Long Term Ecological Research (LTER). At
present, there are 17 such sites in the United States, Puerto Rico, and
Antarctica. The LTER program was initiated in response to the realization that
many important ecological phenomena, including the features that confer
stability and sustainability to ecosystems, can only be studied and understood
on time scales of decades or longer. At the Konza Prairie LTER site, research
focuses on the long-term responses of tall grass prairie to variations in fire
frequency and grazing by large ungulates. Patterns and processes are studied at
the organismic, population, community, ecosystem, and landscape levels. Specific
core areas of study include research on patterns and controls of net primary
production, organic and inorganic nutrient dynamics, key populations that
represent the trophic structure of the system, and the role that disturbance
plays in tall grass prairie. In response to climate change predictions, a number
of field manipulations have been established, and computer simulation modeling
exercises completed, to assess the future sustainability of the tall grass
prairie, as well as identify potential changes that may occur. Examples
highlighting the value of long-term multidisciplinary research will be
presented, as will model predictions and results from research focusing on
system responses to climate change.
Sustainable Ground Water Protection:
Educating Local Communities Ground water needs champions! An often-forgotten but critical resource, ground water supplies drinking water for half of all Americans. The best place to protect ground water is within the communities by local citizens who understand the geographic issues associated with its use. With this as a guiding philosophy, the Groundwater Foundation has developed a program to promote community-based ground water protection solutions on a nationwide basis. Through the program, known as Groundwater Guardian, the Foundation provides support and recognition for communities taking extraordinary care of their ground water source. The program also enables the Foundation to address the national need for a vital, sustainable network of such communities and their citizens. Communities are encouraged to enter the program regardless of the status of their ground water protection process. Community involvement in the program begins with the forming of a Groundwater Guardian team. This must be a diverse group, comprising representatives from citizen groups, local government, educational institutions, and local business, industry, and agriculture. Annual entry forms are submitted to the Foundation; these forms request information about the community, its ground water supply and problems, how the program can help the community to address these problems, and a membership roster of its Groundwater Guardian team. Once the entry form has been accepted by the Foundation, the community team identifies existing ground water protection issues and then develops result-oriented activities (ROAs) to address these issues effectively through time. ROAs are unique to each community, but must have measurable outcomes. The Groundwater Foundation information and support services are organized around these ROAs. Adoption and substantive progress toward implementation of ROAs will mean Groundwater Guardian designation for the community. Annually, prospective and existing Groundwater Guardian communities will meet for the purpose of Groundwater Guardian designation, public accolades, and networking. Nineteen ninety-four served as a test year for the program. From a rural unincorporated community in North Carolina to an Indian tribe in Oregon, from a drainage basin in California to a township in Ontario, eight communities were selected to test the Groundwater Guardian process. In keeping with the program's broad definition of community, they provided an effective test for the program. The communities' populations varied from 3,000 to 150,000. The combined population of the eight communities was just under 750,000. The communities each formed a team, which brought a total of 91 persons into very direct contact with the program and its community ground water protection objectives. Together, these teams adopted and implemented 36 ROAs that directly affected about 100,000 persons in the participating communities. All test-year communities were designated as Groundwater Guardians in November 1994. Groundwater Guardian requires communities to enter
and successfully complete the program each year to maintain Groundwater Guardian
designation. Fifty-five communities, including the eight 1994 communities,
entered for 1995. They came from 27 states and one Canadian province. They
represented population sizes from 2,000 to 800,000. They included unincorporated
areas, villages, large cities, townships, counties, Indian reservations,
watersheds, and metropolitan regions. The combined membership of the Groundwater
Guardian teams for these communities was 428. Their annual reports with ROAs
were to be submitted by September 1995. Successful communities were designated
1995 Groundwater Guardians in Chicago on November 19ñ21, 1995.
Geoscience and Global Change in the Canadian
Prairies: The Palliser Triangle IRMA The Palliser Triangle IRMA (Integrated Research and Monitoring Area) is an interdisciplinary research project coordinated by the Geological Survey of Canada (GSC) that is aimed at improving our understanding of how global change affects water resources and landscape processes in the southern reaches of the prairie provinces. This region, known as the Palliser Triangle (SW Manitoba to SE Alberta), accounts for more than half of Canada's agricultural production, despite severe periodic droughts that exert significant economic and social impacts. In some areas, the future of sustainable agricultural activity is threatened by impending global change, given general circulation model (GCM) predictions that much of this region will become warmer and drier as atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations increase. Adequate preparation for global change requires a proactive land use management plan developed with an improved understanding of landscape and vegetation responses to prehistoric climatic changes that rival GCM predictions of 21st century conditions. Paleoenvironmental research brings two vital insights to the development of a sustainable economic activity plan. First, it is the only means of outlining the range of variability inherent to the "natural" climate system. This provides a realistic context within which the significance of historic trends may be evaluated. Second, paleoenvironmental reconstructions outline the nature of landscape responses (including hydrology, geomorphology, and ecology) associated with a full range of possible climatic conditions, including those predicted by GCMs. The importance of this perspective cannot be overemphasized, because no historic analogues exist for the predicted climatic impacts of the greenhouse effect. Purpose To enhance understanding of landscape processes and past environmental change in semiarid landscapes, and to prepare for geologic hazards associated with future global changes, such as soil erosion, slope stability, and stream siltation. How It Works The project is an interdisciplinary, cooperative research initiative involving earth scientists from government institutions and universities across Canada. There are three main components to the research. 1. Records of past climatic and hydrologic changes. Using the fossil record preserved in the abundant prairie potholes and lakes, researchers are reconstructing changes in climate, hydrology, and water quality that have occurred over the past 10,000 years. 2. Relationships between climate and landscape processes. By studying deposits related to wind, water, and slope erosion, geologists are correlating periods of past landscape instability with changes in climate. This work is supplemented by detailed monitoring of modern landscape processes. 3. Analysis of landscape sensitivity. The Palliser
Triangle landscape is diverse, and will not display homogenous responses to
climatic change. Computer (GIS) analysis of a wide variety of data, including
human activity, will identify areas most severely affected by climatic change,
as well as landscapes that will be minimally affected. These three components lead to a common goal: mapping landscape responses to climatic variability. Since the geologic record documents landscape response to a wide range of past climatic regimes, one of the strengths of this project is that it provides information on the impacts associated with a variety of global change scenarios. The maps produced will allow regional land use and management policies to be founded on a strong scientific footing. Planned Outputs and Principal Clients 1. Regional-scale planning tools for land use management and policy development: including (i) maps of landscape sensitivity, (ii) maps of landscape responses to various climate change scenarios, and (iii) Geographic Information System (GIS) data base and derived maps on CD-ROM. These products are largely directed toward government planners such as the Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration (PFRA), Parks Canada, provincial agencies, and local management districts. 2. Contributions to international initiatives on climate change research: paleoenvironmental data bases will become part of World Data Centre-A for Paleoclimatology Data Sets (NOAA), addressing key components of Stream 1 of PAGES (Past Global Changes) of the International Geosphere Biosphere Programme. The data will initially be used to test GCMs, thereby reducing the uncertainties associated with long-term predictions of climatic change. Progress
A Water Conservation Program for Lincoln,
Nebraska Introducing landscape alternatives to the traditional water-intensive plantings, developing an information base relating to water that is specific to Lincoln, and community education are the primary activities of the Mayor's Water Conservation Task Force. Water conservation is important to the city of Lincoln even with the near-completion of $85 million in system improvements. The goal is to maximize the service life of facilities by containing water demand. Citizens from varied specialties have participated on the task force over the years, including representatives from construction and industry, educators, neighborhood association representatives, horticulturists, realtors, home builders, and personnel from the University of Nebraska. Information is available about the following task force projects:
Lincoln's program emphasizes an alliance with
landscape services, neighborhoods, home builders, real estate companies, the
University of Nebraska, and the public schools.
Community Sustainability through Ecosystem
Management and Planning Small rural communities are the local economic and social centers of life in the Rocky Mountain West. They traditionally rely on extractive and land resource-based industries such as farming, ranching, timber harvesting, oil exploration, and mining, which are declining. The rural West is enduring significant human stress as traditional economies decline and are replaced by service, tourist, and recreational economies and as social and environmental attitudes shift in the region. The changing social structure and economy threatens the nature of local society and traditional culture, especially in agricultural communities. Some describe the changes and resulting stress as a loss of "community" or "sense of place." This project is documenting relationships between rural land use and the ecological and socioeconomic components of rural communities. These relationships will influence the ability of rural agricultural communities to maintain an agricultural system that will be compatible with ongoing community change. The project team uses a systems methodology to interact with the community of Three Forks, Montana. In a series of iterations, the team queries the community about values of place and current economic and social concerns. This information is used to construct a survey to measure and characterize the social and economic makeup of the community. A geographic information system is used to document changes in rural land use within the community's land base. The ecological effects of land use changes are determined through an ecological monitoring procedure. The community survey demographic information and land use changes are recorded on a common geographic information system base so that relationships between land use and ecological, social, and economic qualities can be determined. The sources of change and stress for rural communities can be categorized as immigration to rural communities; growth of the "service sector"; shifts in income and employment patterns of the traditional agricultural economy; and the recognition that the ecological dimension of the region provides a long-term constraint on residents' lifestyles, economies, and communities. These changes are often framed in the context of "old-timers" and the values they hold vs. "newcomers" and their values, resulting in two divergent visions of community development over time. "Old-timers" may reflect a desire to remain a traditional agricultural small town while "newcomers" may not be cognizant of the historical social and economic conditions and may not recognize the full effect of the changes they are a part of. The community survey was administered to residents of the Three Forks/Willow Creek School District, including town and near-town residents and ranchers/farmers. Findings show high levels of community satisfaction and attachment, at a time when many communities experiencing comparable growth and change are experiencing erosion of community satisfaction indicators. People enjoy the local schools and their life in the community. Positive satisfaction ratings suggest that the community can work together on issues of mutual concern because people are happy with where they live and who their neighbors are. There are some misconceptions about what drives the local economy. Although farming and ranching are seen as important to the local economy, they are declining and not adding jobs to the area. Bozeman (thirty miles east) is not seen as an important component, but the number of persons that work and shop in Bozeman is significant (approximately 30% of the sample). About one-half of those surveyed shop primarily in Bozeman. This has economic development considerations - any retail shop recruited to Three Forks may have to compete with Bozeman shops. There is a high degree of efficacy for private property rights but also a high demand for the preservation of land in agricultural production. These conflicting views can be solved with tools such as easements, impact fees, or viewshed zoning, but the emphasis placed on property rights may lead to market value-based solutions. There are many newcomers from elsewhere in Montana, not from out of state. A socioeconomic profile of the Three Forks community was completed using trend analysis methodology presented in Measuring Change in Rural Communities: A Workbook for Determining Demographic Economic and Fiscal Trends (R. Rasker, J. Johnson, and V. York; published by The Wilderness Society, Washington, D.C., 1994). Demographic information was obtained using the Decennial Census for 1980 and 1990, Bureau of the Census, U.S. Department of Commerce. Statistics were selected (1) to give a quick overview, (2) to stimulate discussion, and (3) to help guide the direction of future research. Three Forks appears to be becoming an older community, as are Gallatin County and the state of Montana. The community has a labor force of 521 people, with 10.4% unemployed. The median household income is $3,461 lower than for Gallatin County, and there is a lower proportion of residents with bachelors degrees than in other areas of the county and state. Three Forks has a higher proportion of skilled and nonskilled labor jobs than both the state and the county and a lower percentage of white-collar jobs. The community is a "working" community based on the economy of skilled labor jobs, not jobs that require education after high school. This project is developing methods to correlate land
use change with socioeconomic factors and ecosystems measures. Records of land
use change over time have been compiled on a geographic information system.
Locations where land use has changed will be compared to similar areas of no
change by comparing ecosystem measures associated with soil quality, response to
disturbance, and energy flow. Then the relationships between ecosystem health
and land use change can be quantified so the team can document linkages between
land use, ecosystem health, and socioeconomic factors important to community
sustainability. This will bring together on a spatial basis results from the
survey, the workbook analysis, and field determinations of ecosystem quality and
health correlated with historical changes in land use. In community meetings
there is considerable interest in using the GIS system for community planning
because of its ability to produce predictive maps showing how the community
could appear in the future.
The Saskatchewan Soil Enhancement Project
Soil degradation on the Great Plains has been identified as one of the most serious threats to sustainable agricultural production. Excessive tillage of these soils has proved to be a significant factor in the soil degradation process. The direct seeding of annual and perennial crops greatly reduces farmers' reliance on tillage, which consequently reduces impacts on the environment and wildlife as well as reducing the annual cash costs of producing grain and food crops. The Saskatchewan Soil Conservation Association (SSCA) has, since 1990, been the main source of soil conservation information for Saskatchewan farmers. A large part of the SSCA's program has been to work with innovative farmers in promoting and encouraging the adoption of successful direct seeding techniques. Our programs have been very successful, with attendance at our annual field days and conferences numbering up to 4,000 farmers. In 1994, with the help of the SSCA, Saskatchewan farmers seeded more than 4.6 million acres of wheat, peas, canola, lentils, canary seed, and other crops with the single-pass, low-disturbance seeding system. This is up from 2.4 million acres in 1990. The demand for direct seeding machinery on the prairies has spawned a multi-million-dollar farm implement industry that supplies state-of-the-art seeding technology across North America and abroad. Under the Saskatchewan Soil Enhancement Project, the SSCA has joined with Monsanto Canada Inc., TransAlta Utilities Corp., the Canada-Saskatchewan Green Plan, and the Saskatchewan Department of Agriculture and Food to further develop our direct seeding extension program. A key goal in the project is to establish the acceptance of carbon capture through soil reclamation and the building of carbon sinks in an effort to create and confirm a viable carbon offset for the power generation industry. In developing our extension programs, we have found that by promoting the systems approach to soil conservation, we can achieve a higher adoption of soil conservation techniques. In this way we are unique compared to other extension organizations. Where other soil conservation groups specialize in such areas as weed control, residue management, or seeding, we provide information on the total system. Direct seeding is a complex procedure involving many facets of the farm operation, which we have addressed in designing our extension program. This partnership ushers in a new era where government, industry, and grassroots producer organizations collaborate to develop programs with multiple benefits. The SSCA's continued extension efforts to farmers through local workshops and tours, farm visitations, newsletters, manuals, provincial and local field days, and trade shows will encourage farmer adoption of direct seeding. Our goal is to increase the direct seeded acreage in Saskatchewan to 10 m by 1997. Through direct seeding, positive changes in soil
quality and profile have already been acknowledged by both farmers and soil
scientists. Benefits to farmers include reduced operating costs, increased
productivity, and reduced soil degradation. The agricultural industry benefits
because there is a new market for soil conservation-related products. The power
generation industry will benefit because these programs will help them meet
Canadaís CO2 emission goals for the year 2000. Consumers benefit through
a cleaner environment and the assurance of a more stable source of food. And
wildlife will benefit as well through enhanced habitat. These changes will
ensure the sustainability of our soil resource and the economic viability of
prairie farmers.
Shand Greenhouse: Part of SaskPower's
Commitment to the Environment No longer limited to environmental groups, concern over preservation of the environment has entered the conscience of mainstream society. The public has become more aware and intolerant of any person, group, or industry that conducts its business without due regard for the environment. Electrical utilities such as SaskPower are not excluded from this criticism. In Saskatchewan, the primary source of fuel for electrical generation is coal. Although an abundant and inexpensive source of generating power, coal is a fossil fuel that when burned releases harmful emissions such as carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrous oxide, and particulate into the atmosphere. If coal is to remain an important fuel for electrical generation in Saskatchewan, the problems associated with these emissions need to be addressed. SaskPower has undertaken that challenge through the installation of technology to reduce the levels of dangerous emissions and the construction of a greenhouse at the award-winning Shand Power Station in Estevan. Shand Greenhouse, established in 1991, demonstrates SaskPower's commitment to the environment by using by-products of electrical generation. Waste heat from the power station is used to help grow trees and shrubs native to the province. Seedlings grown through this program are distributed free of charge to nonprofit groups, corporations, and communities for wildlife habitat, reclamation, and conservation projects. As these seedlings grow, they create a carbon sink and help to mitigate some of the carbon dioxide released as a result of coal-fired electrical generation. Research is another component of the greenhouse's operations. Programs experimenting with the germination, production, and outplanting success of a variety of species are currently underway at the greenhouse, which is one of only a few greenhouses in Canada that produce native trees and shrubs in a mass containerized greenhouse system. Joint ventures with industry and government agencies include strip mine reclamation efforts and wildlife habitat development. Shand Greenhouse is also working to educate customers and employees about environmental issues such as the greenhouse effect and abatement of carbon dioxide through the planting of seedlings. The facility is open year-round, holding open houses for the public and field days for children as well as sending personnel to schools throughout the province. Positive results from the greenhouse's programs are already being seen. Approximately 600,000 seedlings have been distributed since its inception, about half of which have been planted locally. The greenhouse has been promoted as a tourist destination in the Estevan area. Locally, the greenhouse provides casual employment opportunities to the mentally challenged. Future plans for Shand Greenhouse include research in
native plant propagation and joint ventures with industry in establishing
reclaimed areas. An ongoing, aggressive information program will continue to
teach the environmental importance of plants in offsetting carbon dioxide
emissions. This educational aspect of the greenhouse is of key importance to
SaskPower both in showing the corporation's commitment to the environment and in
setting an example for others to follow.
Examining Sustainable Options in Western
Nebraska: On-Farm Research Rediscovered The need to generate and then transfer sound knowledge about dry bean production is constantly stimulated by the development of new varieties and new challenges to current practices. The big question is, "Will these varieties and/or practices, if used, return more than they will cost?" More producers are asking for more information about specific production challenges that confront them on their farms. It follows that producers must claim greater partnership in generating the knowledge they require. In research for production agriculture, generating knowledge by performing one trial at one location in a given year is slow and time-consuming. Our goal for participatory on-farm research with dry beans is to conduct trials in one year at multiple locations so the inference drawn from the research will embrace the entire production area. This has been accomplished by working through the Nebraska Dry Bean Growers Association (NDBGA). The Research and Extension Committee of the NDBGA sets the research agenda each year. The NDBGA also provides the structure and limited financing to answer researchable questions while facilitating resource input from public and private sectors of the industry as well as from the producers. The producer also provides practical knowledge and experience with the land as well as the human and physical resources to conduct the trial. More importantly, the producer assesses the relevance of the results. The NDBGA addressed the following eight questions as they set the research agenda for participatory on-farm trials over the last seven years. A total of 142 on-farm trials were established to address these questions. The year in which the question was addressed is in parentheses.
The outcome of the research that addressed each of these questions has been published in the Bean Bag. The Bean Bag is a quarterly publication of the NDBGA that is distributed to every dry bean producer in Nebraska. Before on-farm trials, our research agenda was stuck at one location with variety trials only, and results were shared at field day or through newsletters. Now, through participatory on-farm trials located throughout the entire bean-producing area of Nebraska, the research is widely viewed and shared. The research agenda is no longer solely owned; it is now owned by all who participate, which is as it should be. Working on dry bean production farms through participatory on-farm research is far greater than any one person's agenda. It allows a more relevant and responsive transfer of knowledge than in the past. Participatory on-farm research works for the benefit
of all segments of the dry bean industry. This system provides an opportunity
for all of the industry to participate in research and allows all of the
industry to claim ownership of the results.
Sustainable Dryland Agroecosystems for the
Great Plains Agricultural sustainability in the Great Plains is closely linked with the area's unpredictable climate conditions. Summer fallow, coupled with wheat production, is the primary method of compensating for climatic uncertainty in the Great Plains. This practice has stabilized wheat yields. Unfortunately, summer fallow has several negative impacts, three of which threaten the economic and environmental sustainability of cultivated agriculture in the Great Plains. The first is severe soil erosion by both wind and water. Frequent tillage, necessary for weed control during fallow, destroys residue cover and reduces soil aggregate size and stability, thus accelerating erosion. The second negative is low precipitation use efficiency. Usually less than 25% of the precipitation received during fallow is stored in the soil. Accelerated evaporation and runoff are the water loss avenues. The third negative is loss in soil organic matter, with an associated loss in soil fertility. Our challenging problem was: How do we minimize the soil- and environment-degrading practice of summer fallowing while ensuring economic stability? Our project, started in 1985, addresses this question with a systems approach. Our objective was to identify cropping systems that maximize precipitation use efficiency, improve environmental conditions, and provide economic stability. The systems we are studying have four driving variables: (1) climate regime, (2) soils, (3) management systems, and (4) time. We have three climate regimes, three soil regimes in each climate, and five cropping systems across all soils and climates. Our sites are on farmer-owned land and are not conducted with typical small plot techniques. We have shown that intensifying cropping systems from conventional wheat-fallow to three- and four-year systems, such as wheat-corn-fallow and wheat-corn-millet-fallow, has increased annualized grain production by 72% in all climate regimes. This increase is a function of increasing water use efficiency by 75% to 100%. No-till techniques have decreased soil stirring and reduced evaporation by conserving crop residues on the soil surface. Soil organic matter levels have increased, soil erosion potential has been reduced by 90%, and net income has increased by 25% to 40%, compared to conventional wheat-fallow farming. Producer interest in the field sites and the results has been remarkable. Adoption of the intensified cropping systems is evidenced by a fourfold increase in dryland corn acreage in northeastern Colorado in the last five years: from 20,000 acres (1970ñ88) to 92,000 acres (1994). Last winter, farmers participated in meetings in which they presented their personal experiences with intensified dryland cropping systems. They reported profit increases similar to or higher than those calculated from our research information. Concomitant with adoption of the intensive systems is improved environmental sustainability. Our long-term goal is to develop a decision aid model
for producers that would allow them to make better decisions regarding cropping
and tillage choices, and the probability of increasing their economic return
under their specific environment and management conditions.
Sustainability of Agriculture in Semiarid
Cereal Regions of the Pacific Northwest United States The biological and economic sustainability of major cereal-based cropping systems in the Pacific Northwest was assessed using long-term experiments at Pendleton, Oregon. Long-term experiments originated in 1931 and continue today. The climate is semiarid (17 inches annual rainfall, with 70% occurring in the winter season), the topography is steeply sloping, and soils are moderately deep, medium-textured, generally fertile, and very susceptible to wind and water erosion. Farming systems are essentially crop-based, with very little livestock enterprise. Farms are large and fields are rarely fenced. Cereal systems evaluated included winter wheat/fallow and winter wheat/spring pea. Wheat varieties, cultural practices, and nitrogen fertilizer inputs are modified periodically to keep abreast of current technology. Tillage is conventional (moldboard plow), with both chemical and mechanical weed control. Soil samples are taken about every 10 years to evaluate organic matter content and quality. Wheat yield has risen steadily during the past 60 years because of improvements in cereal breeding, water conservation, weed and disease control, and plant nutrition. Improvements that increased crop residue yield have been beneficial to biological sustainability, provided residues were returned to the soil. Practices that leave little crop residue on the land have been detrimental to biological sustainability, especially where fallowing is practiced. Economic sustainability has generally been negative since the 1950s, primarily because of rapidly increasing costs coupled with static wheat prices. Increases in yield have not been able to offset rapidly increasing production costs. Wheat-based systems are presently profitable, but trends indicate a loss of profitability by the year 2000. Even moderate levels of soil erosion are projected to decrease both biological and economic sustainability. Cereal yields are very sensitive to rainfall sufficiency, especially spring rainfall received during advanced stages of cereal growth. Winter precipitation storage affects annual crop systems much more than wheat/fallow rotation. Changes in yield due to shifts in precipitation proposed for global climate change can be projected and their influence on cropping systems estimated. Funding for this project was provided by the
Rockefeller Foundation, the Oregon Wheat Commission, Oregon State University,
and USDA-ARS. It was conducted by cooperating state, federal, and private
industry scientists. The wheat/fallow study was one of six used by the
Rockefeller Foundation to evaluate the sustainability of agriculture in the
world today through the use of long-term experiments. Results have been
presented to sustainable agriculture meetings in England and the Pacific
Northwest. Seminars were conducted throughout the tristate area. Copies of the
report were provided to wheat industry commissions, public interest groups, and
federal and state legislators serving on agricultural or natural resources
committees. A copy of the report was entered into the Congressional Record.
Abbreviated versions were published in several local newspapers and farm
magazines.
Agroforestry: Blending Agriculture and
Forestry Production and Conservation Practices Agroforestry, the integration of agriculture and forestry production and conservation practices, bridges production agriculture and natural resource conservation with environmental protection and human needs. Agroforestry systems contribute substantially to generating the ecological and economic diversity important for long-term sustainable development. Practices include riparian buffer systems, stream bank bioengineering, alley cropping, living terraces, windbreaks, tree/pasture systems, and tree/specialty crop systems. Benefits are increased crop protection, alternative crops and diversified rural economies, improved water quality, soil erosion and sediment control, filtering and biodegrading excess nutrients and pesticides, reducing flooding damage, microclimate moderation, and diversified habitats for wildlife and people. The USDA Forest Service National Agroforestry Center
provides leadership to develop, integrate, and apply agroforestry technologies
to attain productive, diverse, resilient, and sustainable agroecosystems. Its
role is to provide national leadership and direction, build partnerships and
cooperation, leverage resources, and catalyze innovation and synergy to develop
and apply agroforestry. The Center acts as a clearinghouse to provide a variety
of informational services, and works with a national network of cooperators to
support agroforestry development and applications projects nationwide.
Impact of Conservation Practices on Wind
Erosion in the Red River Valley of North Dakota: 1948-91
The natural landscape of the United States Great Plains has been nearly completely transformed by human action over the past 150 years (Riebsame, 1990) and is frequently perceived as a region in extreme ecological stress. Although the transformation of the Plains grassland ecosystem is undeniable, specific examples of environmental stress need to be scientifically documented on a case-by-case basis. Wind erosion, for example, is one of the most ubiquitous environmental problems throughout the region. Popular essays on the sustainability of the Great Plains region boldly state that "soil erosion is approaching dust bowl rates," and that "they [Plains farmers] never created a truly stable agriculture or found reliable conservation devices" (Popper and Popper, 1987). In this study, long-term trends in dust production were examined for one subregion of the Great Plains over the period 1948ñ91 and related to concurrent trends in land use, climate data, and soil conservation practices. The Red River Valley of North Dakota is a nearly level remnant glacial lake plain formed by glacial Lake Agassiz and composed of fine and loamy sediments (Cihacek et al., 1993). Previous studies have identified it as one of the highest potential dust production regions in the United States (Gillette and Hanson, 1989) and the area most prone to blowing dust in North Dakota (Hagen and Woodruff, 1973). Separate time series of selected agricultural statistics, climatic parameters, and present weather observations were assembled for Fargo, North Dakota, for 1948ñ91. The only long-term, consistent, and reliable data available for studying historical wind erosion are the hourly observations of dust-related weather phenomenon reported by trained meteorologists and recorded on the Surface Airways Hourly data tape (TD-3280). These include the categories of dust, blowing dust, and dust storms. The time series of hourly totals of these three weather phenomena at the Fargo, North Dakota, Weather Service Office station are shown in Figure 1. A Spearman correlation test of the frequency of hourly dust-related weather observations versus year resulted in a correlation coefficient of -0.314, which was significant at the 0.05 confidence level. Historical land use patterns for Cass County, North Dakota, and temperature and precipitation data for climate division 6 (east central North Dakota) were examined to determine whether the observed decrease in the frequency of dust-related weather observations could be explained on the basis of land use changes or climate history. Data extracted from the North Dakota Agricultural Statistics for Cass County over the period 1955ñ91 revealed a trend toward increased intensity of land use. Pearson correlation tests versus year indicate an increase in total acres planted (r = 0.492) and row crop (r = 0.861) acreage over time, and a decrease in all hay (r = -0.966), small grain (r = -0.433), and summer fallow (-0.407) acreage over time. All of the correlation coefficients were significant at the 0.01 level, except for the summer fallow acreage trend, which was significant at the 0.05 level. Row crops (soybeans, sunflowers, grain corn, dry edible beans, sugar beets, and potatoes) accounted for 14% of total cropland in 1955, and now account for 47% of total cropland. Consequently, land use patterns would appear to indicate increased pressure on land, which might be expected to increase wind erosion potential, and cannot be used to explain the decreased frequency of dust-related weather phenomena. Hydroclimatic trends over the study period indicate a trend toward increasing soil dryness, with regional annual precipitation totals remaining stable and regional average annual air temperature increasing at a rate of 2.3C per century (P = 0.10). The secular climate record, therefore, indicates a trend toward increasing regional soil dryness, which would be physically inconsistent with the dust observation records (Todhunter, 1995). The reduction in the frequency of windblown weather events is best explained by the development and adoption of conservation practices in the post-Dust Bowl era. The once nearly treeless Red River Valley landscape now possesses one of the highest concentrations of shelterbelts in the world. Farm technology improvements, such as improved herbicides to control troublesome weeds, chisel plows, and air seeders, have enabled the widespread practice of conservation tillage. Improved farm management practices focusing on crop residue management have resulted in increased spring soil moisture content, higher soil organic matter content, improved soil structure, and increased aerodynamic roughness. Although statewide enrollment in the Soil Bank and Conservation Reserve Programs are among the highest in the nation, the very low participation of Cass County farm operators in these programs would appear to be inadequate to explain the reduced wind erosion hazard. Improved farm technology and farm management
practices, albeit at the expense of extensive use of agricultural chemicals,
provides the best explanation for the reduced wind erosion threat in the Red
River Valley of the north. This conclusion is also consistent with studies
conducted on the high plains of Texas (Ervin and Lee, 1994). Consideration of
modern conservation practices and soil management technologies appears to be
crucial in the examination of the potential impact of global climate change on
wind erosion rates in the Great Plains. References Cihacek, L. J.; M. D. Sweeney; and E. J. Deibert. 1993. Characterization of wind erosion sediments in the Red River Valley of North Dakota. Journal of Environmental Quality 22:305-10. Ervin, R. T.; and J. A. Lee. 1994. Impact of conservation practices on airborne dust in the southern High Plains of Texas. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 49(5):430-37. Gillette, D. A.; and K. J. Hanson. 1989. Spatial and temporal variability of dust production caused by wind erosion in the United States. Journal of Geophysical Research 94(D2):2197-2206. Hagen, L. J.; and N. P. Woodruff. 1973. Air pollution from dust storms in the Great Plains. Atmospheric Environment 7:323-32. Popper, D. E.; and F. J. Popper. 1987. The Great Plains: From dust to dust, a daring proposal for dealing with an inevitable disaster. Planning 53:12-18. Riebsame, W. E. 1990. The United States Great Plains. In B. L. Turner, ed. The Earth as Transformed by Human Action: Global and Regional Changes in the Biosphere over the Past 300 Years. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Todhunter, P. E. 1995. Hydroclimatic perspectives of
waterfowl production in the North Dakota prairie pothole region. Great Plains
Research, in press.
Developing Climatic Adaptation Programs for
Canadian Prairies Sustainability Climate is very closely linked with the environment, society, and the economy of the Canadian prairies. Year-to-year variations and longer-term climatic changes are associated with variations in many sectors, both economic and environmental. Climatic risks through events such as droughts result in crop yield losses, soil erosion, water supply problems, forest fire increases, and habitat reduction. Overabundance of precipitation can also have both negative effects and benefits, depending on amounts and timing. Risks are emphasized because they are often more difficult to plan for and to cope with than benefits. The purpose of this abstract is to provide the background and initial directions for climatic programs for sustainable development in the Canadian prairies. The goal is to harmonize human activities with the prairie climate so that climatic risks to sustainability are minimized and climatic benefits are maximized. In other words, the goal is climatic adaptation. Sustainability assessment and planning must consider the nature, impacts of, and adaptation to climate. A plan without this would not ensure sustainability. Strategies to ensure sustainability differ from one climate to another. For example, farm management that would be sustainable under one climate type may result in accelerated wind erosion in another climate. The study area is the Canadian provinces of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta, termed the prairie provinces or prairies. This area is considered as a focus of effort in the climatic impact and adaptation assessment field for several reasons:
Several prairie climatic change impact assessment projects have been completed and are listed in the bibliography by Wheaton (1993). This paper draws on examples of Environment Canada and Saskatchewan Research Council work. The most recent work focused on biodiversity and atmospheric change and on integrated impact assessments. Earlier work examined the impacts of climatic variations on agriculture, based on a case study of Saskatchewan (Williams et al., 1988). It was part of a large international study regarding assessments in cool temperate and cold regions of the world. It established some of the methodologies to estimate climatic change impacts, and the work provided some of the earliest warnings of such impacts related to global warming. Very few climatic change assessment projects have included adaptation components, except those by Williams et al. (1988), for example. Therefore, it appears that climatic adaptation assessments for the prairies are very limited and scarce. This is an important knowledge gap. It seems that effort has been concentrated on improving agricultural production and yields, often at the expense of protection through improved adaptation to climatic challenges. Methods used for climatic impact and adaptation assessment are presented. These include the use of models and sets of models, expert judgment, and qualitative frameworks such as matrices, especially for integrated assessments. Results of climatic change impact assessments are summarized. They indicate the sensitivity and interrelationships of climate, the environment, and the economy. Many of these are qualitative results only, and quantitative sensitivities of linkages are not fully known in many instances. This leaves a significant gap for future work. Climatic events such as droughts, frosts, wind storms, and floods are major challenges to sustainability in the prairie provinces. Improved adaptation strategies are required so that prairie sustainability is not further jeopardized under future climatic variation and change. We conclude that if society has and effectively uses information about the dynamic nature of climate and its interactions, we will be able to decrease our vulnerability and increase benefits from changing climates. This is our vision for this aspect of a sustainable future. Recommendations include the development of a climate
mitigation and adaptation network, working groups, and climate programs. These
mechanisms are clearly needed to address the question of prairie sustainability
faced with an uncertain climate. The knowledge gaps regarding climatic impacts,
interactions, and adaptations are numerous and have serious implications. Goals
for a sustainable future, as confronted by climatic variations, must be
developed. Then a portfolio of adaptive strategies must be developed and tested
in order to achieve these goals. References Gullett, D. W.; and W. R. Skinner. 1992. The State of Canada's Climate: Temperature Change in Canada 1895-1991. Environment Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, pp. 1-16. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 1990. Potential Impacts of Climate Change. Prepared by IPCC Working Group II. Government Publishing Service, Canberra, Australia. Parry, M. L.; T. R. Carter; and N. T. Konijn (eds.). 1988. The Impact of Climatic Variations on Agriculture, Vol. 1: Assessment in Cool Temperate and Cold Regions. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands. Wheaton, E. E.; L. M. Arthur; B. Chorney; S. Shewchuk; J. Thorpe; J. Whiting; and V. Wittrock. 1992. The Prairie Drought of 1988. Climatological Bulletin 26(3):188-205. Saskatchewan Research Council (SRC) Publication No. E-2330-4-E-90. SRC, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. Wheaton, E. E.; and L. M. Arthur (eds.). 1989. Environmental and Economic Impacts of the 1988 DroughtóWith Emphasis on Saskatchewan and Manitoba. Volume 1. Prepared for the 1988 Drought Steering Committee. Saskatchewan Research Council (SRC) Publication No. E-2330-4-E-89. SRC, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. Wheaton, E. E. 1993. Impacts of a Variable and Changing Climate on the Canadian Prairie Provinces: A Preliminary Integration and Annotated Bibliography. Prepared for the Canadian Climate Centre, Environment Canada. Saskatchewan Research Council (SRC) Publication No. E-2900-7-E-93. Williams, G. D. V.; R. A. Fautley; K. H. Jones; R. B.
Stewart; and E. E. Wheaton. 1988. Estimating effects of climatic change on
agriculture in Saskatchewan, Canada. In M. L. Parry, T. R. Carter, and N. T.
Konijn (eds.). The Impact of Climatic Variations on Agriculture, Vol. 1:
Assessment in Cool Temperate and Cold Regions; pp. 219-379. Kluwer Academic
Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
Soil and Water Conservation Practices of
Farmers in Central Mali This research was conducted to identify farmers' objectives for crop and livestock production, principal constraints to these activities, and farmers' strategies for dealing with these constraints. Available solutions from on-farm trials (and the level of adoption of each technique) are identified and discussed. A suitable (more effective) sequential mode of adoption of these solutions, relative to other techniques available to farmers, is recommended, based on farmer type and agroecological zone. The study employed on-farm farmer-managed experimentation and a monitoring process involving 300 farmers in the research area. The study found that water and wind erosion are serious problems in the research area, resulting in low soil moisture, soil degradation, and poor soil fertility. These are the major constraints to sustainable crop and livestock production. In addition, there is increased pressure on cultivable land due to accelerated population growth leading to shorter fallowing periods. This eventually leads to desertification. Principal crops are cereals; legumes such as peanuts and cowpeas are important secondary crops. Livestock consist mainly of cattle and small ruminants such as goats and sheep. The principal farmer objective for crop production is to maintain food self-sufficiency, whereas livestock production is used as a cash revenue source (small ruminants) and a store of wealth (cattle and other large ruminants). Soil and water conservation techniques available to farmers include tree planting, construction of small dams and dikes, rock bunds, tied ridges, "live fences," animal traction, and mulching. Adoption of a technique and the resulting benefits vary widely between agroecological zones and farmer objectives. The most widely used practice is animal traction for land preparation (used by more than 79% of the farmers), followed by "live fences," which is practiced by about 30% of the farmers. Tree planting, mulching, tied ridges, and rock bunds are used by 15%, 10%, 8%, and 5% of the farmers, respectively. Mechanical traction is rarely used; about 5% of the farmers who use this method construct "half moons" to control surface runoff and encourage vegetative regrowth. Crop intensification (sorghum-cowpea association) is another technique for protecting top soils from erosion. There is very little crop-livestock integration. A technique of improved livestock corralling is designed to encourage this integration. Benefits of these techniques are multiple and accrue over the long run. The use of tree planting as a conservation technique depends largely on the species' effectiveness in acting as windbreaks and erosion controls. In most parts of the research area, farmers hoping to increase crop and livestock productivity would find it more useful to adopt soil and water conservation techniques before considering crop varietal selection, chemical fertilizers, and other crop intensification practices. The principal constraints to the adoption of these techniques include the lack of construction materials such as rocks and also labor for transporting the materials. There is never sufficient water for planted trees, especially during the dry season. Finally, farmer practices are highly influenced by cattle ownership and the production of a cash crop, specifically cotton. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||